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Wednesday, April 15, 2020

AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything!

AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything!


AskScience AMA Series: Hello, Reddit! Three members of the veterinary team at the Dog Aging Project are here to answer your questions about dogs and COVID-19. Ask us anything!

Posted: 15 Apr 2020 04:01 AM PDT

The Dog Aging Project is a longitudinal, observational research study that brings together a community of dogs, owners, veterinarians, researchers, and volunteers to carry out the most ambitious canine science project in the world. This ten-year, citizen-science initiative will investigate the biological, lifestyle, and environmental factors that influence healthy aging in dogs, and by extension, humans. To learn more or to join our efforts visit dogagingproject.org.

We have been closely following the veterinary implications of COVID-19. Currently, two dogs in Hong Kong, a cat in Belgium, and at least one tiger in the US have tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, the novel coronavirus responsible for the current pandemic. Neither of the dogs displayed symptoms of illness. Both cats did. For more details about our current understanding of COVID-19 in pets, please check out Dogs and COVID-19: What We Know and What We Don't and Human to Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on the Dog Aging Project blog.

There are also excellent resources at World Organization for Animal Health, CDC Recommendations for Pet Owners, and Emerging Coronavirus Strains and Veterinary Patients.

We're here to answer questions about:

  • Coronaviruses and companion animals
  • Human-to-animal transmission
  • Staying safe during the pandemic
  • Interpreting signs of illness in animals
  • What to do if your dog gets sick
  • What we know about veterinary testing for COVID-19 +Anything else related to dog health and longevity

We can't diagnose or provide specific medical advice in this forum. If you have concerns about your own health or the health of your companion animals, please contact your own medical or veterinary providers.

ABOUT US:

Dr. Kate E. Creevy, DVM, MS, DACVIM, is the Chief Veterinary Officer for the Dog Aging Project, an Associate Professor of Small Animal Internal Medicine at Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and a practicing small animal internist. She has been working on population-level investigations into morbidity and mortality in companion dogs since 2007. She is the cofounder of the Canine Longevity Consortium.

Dr. Audrey Ruple, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVPM, MRCVS, is the Assistant Professor of One Health Epidemiology in the Department of Public Health at Purdue University. She is a licensed, clinical veterinarian and is a Diplomate of the American College of Veterinary Preventive Medicine. She is a co-investigator for multiple research programs at the Dog Aging Project.

Dr. Katherine Tolbert, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, is a Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine in Small Animal Clinical Science at the Texas A&M University's College of Veterinary Medicine. Her clinical research program is focused on small animal gastroenterology with a specific interest in the investigation of the efficacy of gastroprotectants and the rationale for their use in the treatment of acid-related disorders, organ failure, neoplasia, and inflammatory diseases in dogs and cats. Katie serves as the Veterinary Practice Logistics Liaison for the Dog Aging Project.

Join the Dog Aging Project at dogagingproject.com.

Dr. Creevy, Dr. Ruple, and Dr. Tolbert will take your questions on Wednesday, April 15th from 11am-noon PDT (2pm EDT, 6pm UTC). We're excited to join you, ask us anything!

Usernames: dogagingproject, kcreevy

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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Seasonal flu has a basic reproduction number (R0) of 1.3 and COVID-19 has a 2-2.5. What factors dictate the difference between these diseases in terms of spread?

Posted: 15 Apr 2020 03:53 AM PDT

For example, does that mean that a smaller amount of COVID-19 viruses are needed to infect a person and gain a foothold in the body than seasonal flu? Also would the shape of the spike proteins protruding from the capsid affect the viruses' ability to attach to respiratory cells thereby increasing the R0 value?

submitted by /u/BareHench
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Will the vaccine help an infected organism to fight the disease?

Posted: 15 Apr 2020 07:03 AM PDT

The vaccine is used to prevent a healthy organism from being infected. But can it be helpful in other cases?

submitted by /u/fxlr8
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What did our evolutionary ancestors do for hygiene, such as showers, brushing teeth, and cutting hair and nails?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 01:12 PM PDT

Since many of the COVID-19 cases are asymptomatic, could it be possible that the virus existed before what we are actually being told i.e. Wuhan, through bats? Could it be that the virus was around months or years before the first case started showing actual symptoms and testing began?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 08:22 PM PDT

One more question, how do scientists determine the age and/or origin of a virus?

submitted by /u/crackguy
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Do bugs sleep? Plain and simple.

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 04:23 PM PDT

Do bugs sleep? (insects, spiders, moths,flies, the colloquial application of the word bugs is implied)

submitted by /u/kennethgibson
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What does *actually* affect our eyesight? Reading in the dark? Using screens at a high brightness? Something else entirely?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 02:26 PM PDT

This stems from a discussion I had with my father - he has his monitor permanently set to the highest brightness, and a desk lamp constantly on right next to it. On the other hand, I always set the brightness according to what I'm doing - so if I'm using a program with a white background, I take it down to nearly 0 (but I also tend to have my curtains halfway drawn due to sun reflecting of the next building, so on average my room is darker). I cannot understand his method - it's a terrible amount of light shining right into his face. However, he in turn says my contrast is too low and that damages my eyes.

I think I've read a headline somewhere stating that reading in the dark, while tiring, does not cause permanent damage. So my question is: which factors can affect eyesight in the long term - brightness, contrast, something else? How should I set my monitor? Article links would be appreciated, so I can easily win future discussion.

submitted by /u/cubelith
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How the water that we drink is distributed inside our body?

Posted: 15 Apr 2020 12:00 AM PDT

The process after we drink a glass what portion of is used for digestion and for accumulation of pee? How does it get seperated? What % of a glass of water is converted to pee and other purposes?

submitted by /u/Tjkalyan
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Are some viruses more difficult to develop vaccines for than others?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 05:56 PM PDT

So all along we've been told that things won't go "back to normal" until there's a vaccine.

We've also been told the vaccine is 1 to 1.5 years away.

My question is, if HIV was first discovered in 1983 and there's still no vaccine... Why will we have a Covid19 vaccine in a year or two?

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Why is it that we were able to produce a vaccine for H1N1 reltively quickly but it will take much longer for COVID-19?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 08:07 PM PDT

Why do we hear static/buzzing in our ear/headphones whenever we pause audio?

Posted: 15 Apr 2020 03:25 AM PDT

Why do some medicines or doctors tell you that the medicine needs to be taken at a certain moment of the day, like morning or night, what difference would it make if I took them at a different hour than the prescribed one?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 03:45 PM PDT

Why is CO toxic to humans but not CO2? How does an extra oxygen atom change the potency of the molocule?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 02:19 PM PDT

How do we know when cosmic inflation began?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 09:29 AM PDT

All the sources that I looked at claimed that the inflationary epoch began at about 10^-36 seconds after the big bang, but is this an arbitrary number that appears plausible as part of the theory, or is this substantiated by evidence of some kind? I am asking this because I couldn't find error ranges for this figure. I also understand that there are constraints on inflation in general to fit with measurements of the curvature of the universe as well as horizon causality, but this number appears to have come out of nowhere to just make the numbers fit nicely with e-folding.

submitted by /u/Yonboyage
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What is the diff. bet. DC and AC Conductivity for Metals Vs Dielectrics, and how do they change with frequency?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 11:23 AM PDT

I have a question about DC and AC Conductivity for Metals (conductors) Vs Dielectrics (insulators)? It may be easier to explain what I understand, and have people correct me.

For Conducting Metals, DC conductivity is usually very high. As the frequency increases the combined DC and AC conductivity starts to decrease (following Drude model), and it does so like a low pass filter so that the total conductivity of the metal is decreasing with frequency (Due to free charge mobility, and skin effect?)

For Dielectrics, the story is reversed. DC conductivity is usually very low, as they are insulators. As the frequency increases the AC conductivity increases, increasing the total system conductivity and lowering overall resistance following the universal dielectric response model. The physics here may have to do with molecular/ionic resonances, so the increase with frequency is not linear, and has peaks corresponding to resonances.

Please correct me if/where I am wrong. Please also tell me if I am right:)

Thank you very much in advance.

submitted by /u/EngScientist
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Why is the pH scale based on 7?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 06:47 AM PDT

I get that 7 is neutral, below is acidic and above a base and the sense of making it logarithmic.

But how did it happen that 7 is considered middle with +/- 7 steps to go?

Why not for example 0 for neutral, -10 for perfect acid and +10 for perfect base?

submitted by /u/lionon
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On the back of my cooking salt, "Sodium FerroCyanide" is listed as an ingredient. I've heard Ferrocyanides are safe except in the presence of acids when they give off Hydrogen Cyanide gas. If I cook with this salt and acidic foods or sauces, am I slowly poisoning myself?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 07:36 AM PDT

The proportion of the sodium ferrocyanide wasn't given on the back of the box (UK-market so EU food standards) so I assume it is minimal. However even if it is small, there isn't an amount of cyanide I would be happy consuming myself or serving to others. This is due to my lack of understanding of the processes involved - would like to understand more about the chemistry and if it is giving off hydrogen cyanide gas, is it at a level where the body can protect itself over time? How does that work?

submitted by /u/Selmingah
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Can i find Polaris by looking up at sky from India?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 11:18 AM PDT

I have been learning what are constellations and how to locate north by locating Usra Major Constellation and finding Polaris by using them. But is Polaris visble for anyone from anywhere who look up at the sky? I didnt find it when i looked up or i might have not searched for it properly.

submitted by /u/ezra_wolf
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Tuesday, April 14, 2020

Does a collection of photons in a box (with perfectly reflective walls) have a well defined temperature?

Does a collection of photons in a box (with perfectly reflective walls) have a well defined temperature?


Does a collection of photons in a box (with perfectly reflective walls) have a well defined temperature?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 04:25 PM PDT

AskScience AMA Series: I am paleontologist Hans Sues, I study late Paleozoic and Mesozoic vertebrates. Ask Me Anything!

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 04:00 AM PDT

Hi Reddit, I'm Dr. Hans Sues. I am a vertebrate paleontologist who is particularly interested in late Paleozoic and Mesozoic vertebrates. I first became interested in fossils when I was four years old and, as a high-school student, started collecting animal and plant fossils with a group of amateur collectors. Later I studied earth sciences and zoology and received my Ph.D. in biology.

I have worked as a university professor and curator for many years. I am now Senior Scientist in the Department of Paleobiology at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History. My field research has taken me to many countries around the world. I have done a lot of blogging and a recent series of videos called "The Doctor Is In" about fossils for general audiences. I look forward to talking with you!

I will begin answering questions at 12 noon Eastern Time (16:00 UTC).

Username: MESOZOICGUY

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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Where do the photons go after the light is turned off in the room?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 06:58 AM PDT

what would happen to a person’s immunity if they were exposed to monoclonal antibody therapy after already developing a natural immune response?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 02:25 PM PDT

i'm trying to develop a novel use for monoclonal antibody therapy and want to understand the possible side effects of treating somebody whose body has already endured and antigenic substance and produces natural antibodies against it.

submitted by /u/annalapadula
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Can cats catch the new coronavirus?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 06:07 AM PDT

I saw some news of a tiger in a zoo that showed up with covid-19. I have no idea why someone wouldn't keep social distance of a tiger, but it happened.

Was it a unique event, specific of that tiger? Maybe its immune system wasn't ok.

Does it mean that other felines can catch the disease as well? For example, our common domestic cat?

submitted by /u/ThiagoMacgyver
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Why does the genome for SARS-COv-2 ends in a plethora of adenine?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 12:01 PM PDT

Do people become immune to CoVid-19 after recovering from it?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 02:25 AM PDT

How does the Earth dissipate heat?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 08:12 AM PDT

The sun is constantly warming the sun. I have a basic understanding of thermodynamics, and I can't seem to figure out how the Earth is able to dissipate all the energy it collects from the sun. It has to somehow, otherwise we'd just continue to heat up. Heat doesn't travel through a vacuum, so where does all that energy go? I recall reading that this is also a problem with the ISS and a potential problem for any future long-term space mission. So how does the Earth handle this? Thanks in advance.

submitted by /u/_Hounds_
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Why are master keys able to open different locks? How does that work?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 09:07 PM PDT

Is there any known correlation between a person's average body temperature and their susceptibility to disease?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 07:20 AM PDT

For example, do we know if someone who normally sits at 96°F would have a different chance of getting sick than someone usually at 99°F? I know there are many factors that go into immunity, I was just wondering if someone's natural body temp has something to do with it?

submitted by /u/Pillarkitten99
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Could we give blood transfusions containing Covid-19 antibodies en masse to vulnerable sections of the population for passive immunity?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 09:48 PM PDT

I'm sure this might be unfeasible, but in theory? Give those vulnerable to the virus passive immunity, once every 1-3 months, until a treatment is found?

submitted by /u/CoronaVendetta
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How did we know about planets before telescope?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 05:52 AM PDT

How did we know that planets are different from stars before we could see them?

submitted by /u/vadimuha
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How are scientists projecting "peaks" of death/infections?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 04:31 PM PDT

I'm keep hearing how scientists have projected a time period in which the peak of this pandemic takes place. How? What factor do they account for which suddenly makes it drop?

submitted by /u/Phenomenon101
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Wavelength manipulation...is it possible? and questions about electrons

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 03:46 AM PDT

Lockdown got me thinking about this. Is it possible to manipulate a wavelength. If the colour of an object is denoted by wavelength interaction between photons and electrons it got me thinking can this be manipulated. After researching about it, it then lead me to thinking about how electrons get excited - light or collision - is there a maximum amount of light that electrons can absorb? What happens if an electron stays excited?

submitted by /u/InterstellarSeeker
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Are there any diseases for which a vaccine exists but humanity isn't trying for herd immunity?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 03:15 PM PDT

I have a reasonable knowledge of disease vectors, vaccines and the concept of herd immunity to protect those who cannot be vaccinated. Some people don't want any or some vaccines from a principle of bodily autonomy and I understand that viewpoint, even if I don't agree with it. Are there any diseases where this is a reasonable position to take? Are there any diseases where it isn't practical to go for herd immunity?

Please don't gum up this thread with anti-anti-vaxx stuff. That's not what I'm asking. This is an academic question about disease eradication.

submitted by /u/squished_hedgehog
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How does the flu vaccine still work if the influenza virus mutates? Could the vaccine stop working someday?

Posted: 14 Apr 2020 02:13 AM PDT

Does the annual flu vaccine reduce the likelihood of transmission in someone who doesn't get the flu?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 04:55 PM PDT

I've never had the flu. I've also never had the flu vaccine, and I work in a hospital so I don't think I'm just 'lucky'. So how would getting the flu vaccine help reduce the chance of transmission? I would think the likelihood of transmission would be the same for someone with or without the vaccine?

submitted by /u/SlyTom
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How does a vaccine with inactivated virus work?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 11:10 PM PDT

Except as carriers, are mosquitoes deadly?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 05:05 PM PDT

What if my whole body was covered with mosquitoes and they were sucking my blood. Will it be enough to drain me out or kill me?

submitted by /u/ude-pundit
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Do local geographical factors impact thunderstorm intensity or lightning strike frequency?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 10:53 AM PDT

From pure casual observation, it seems that certain areas within a 50-mile radius of where I live tend to be impacted by thunderstorms more strongly than others. Is that possibly correct, or is it random? The only info I can find so far is on broad large regional differences, not local variations.

submitted by /u/Modthryth
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How can I develop a fair scoring system for a game with a variable number of players from day to day?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 12:48 PM PDT

I play video games regularly with a group of 3-5 players in a 4 player multiplayer game. We want to develop a ranking system over time that fairly reflects our performance given the fact that sometimes we have 3 players, sometimes 4, and sometimes 5, with 4 people per round and the loser rotating out. We're thinking something like an average ordinal place, except we don't want 1st out of 3 to be worth the same as 1st out of 4 (as one example).

This seems like a straightforward mathematical problem but I'm having trouble wrapping my mind around any provably optimal solution. Any help would be greatly appreciated!

Edit: typos

submitted by /u/Rhodopsin_Less_Taken
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How do salt water fish pump salt out of their blood?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 06:12 PM PDT

Monday, April 13, 2020

If SARS-Cov-2 is an RNA virus, why does the published genome show thymine, and not uracil?

If SARS-Cov-2 is an RNA virus, why does the published genome show thymine, and not uracil?


If SARS-Cov-2 is an RNA virus, why does the published genome show thymine, and not uracil?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 06:09 PM PDT

Link to published genome here.

First 60 bases are attaaaggtt tataccttcc caggtaacaa accaaccaac tttcgatctc ttgtagatct.

submitted by /u/DirtyOldAussie
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If there is only one virus that causes COVID-19, how can there be so many competing vaccines in the works? Were there multiple possible vaccines for Polio and other viruses as well?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 02:00 PM PDT

Where does the capsule of a benign tumor come from?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 07:49 AM PDT

Hello everyone,

I'm in a patho class and while reading a chapter on neoplasms I didn't understand where a neoplasms capsule originates from. Our book specifically states that: "Benign tumors usually consist of differentiated cells that reproduce at a higher than normal rate. The benign tumor is often encapsulated and expands but does not spread." (Gould B., Dyer, R. Pathophysiology for the health professionals)

However, the text never elaborates where the capsule originates; my instructor also didn't know the answer.

A google search led me to ScienceDirect, where the article states that a neoplasm's capsule is "primarily the product of the elaboration of tumor stroma. In addition, the tumor capsule may derive in part from the fibrous debris resulting from necrotic cell death of tissue cells adjacent to the neoplasm."

The answer seems relatively clear cut, when there is abnormal growth nearby necrosis creates a capsule around said growth. Cool, so is the rate and pattern the primary contributing factors for a benign tumor to be encapsulated?

TLDR: I'm dumb and can't read, why are benign tumors encapsulated??

submitted by /u/jigglymuffin
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Why does the James Webb Space Telescope need its sunshield?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 07:30 AM PDT

So I was looking at some images of the JWST and I wondered why it needed that sunshield. I mean, since the telescope will sit at the L2 lagrangian point, it will be impossible for the sun to reach it.

submitted by /u/Beardlodger
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What are exosomes? What, if any, relationship do they have with viruses?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 01:39 AM PDT

This is my first time asking a question here, so I hope I'm following all the rules. This is related to covid-19, but isn't really about it.

I've recently become aware of exosomes through some videos being pushed by 'alternative' media sources. These videos make dubious claims beyond the scope of this question but the featured 'experts' claim that viruses, specifically SARS-CoV-2 are 'just exosomes'. I get the impression that this is wildly inaccurate but I don't understand the topic enough to be sure.

What I would like to know is:

What exactly are exosomes? What function do they perform? What if any similarities are there viruses and exosomes?

Thank you.

submitted by /u/MrReyneCloud
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The white stuff from pimples - is it always existing underneath the surface and when a pimple grows it pulls from some reservoir? Or is the white stuff something that only exists when a pimple comes up?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 01:38 AM PDT

Are immunoglobulins against CoVid-19 a possible treatment for the disease?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 03:29 AM PDT

Researchers in Pakistan from DOW University of Health Sciences have successfully extracted plasma from patients who have recovered from CoVid-19, which contains immunoglobulins (antibodies) against the virus and are claiming this is a cure for the disease as they can inject them into healthy citizens and inoculate them against the disease.

Would this method of vaccination work?

submitted by /u/Thomas_Catthew
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Does an invasive species eventually reach an equilibrium with its new environment?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 12:48 AM PDT

I always hear people demanding open season on pigs and pythons, and while I agree with them, in the back of my head I can't help but wonder if we're underestimating the resiliance of nature. Multiple species that are currently established in ecosystems were at one point invasive, right?

submitted by /u/Yoursisterissexy
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How do scientists develop vaccines to avoid ADE?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 02:46 AM PDT

Hi everyone :-)
I have read that ADE is a major concern in vaccination, since it may exacerbate virus infections. How do scientists avoid this when creating a vaccine?

submitted by /u/Raphael-Rose
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How do adult stem cells know when to stop dividing?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 12:43 AM PDT

So let's say for a moment that you, say, got a scratch and a cut. Tissue is lost, and you bleed. Later on, blood clots, and the bleeding stops. Over time, a scab forms, and then falls off. And then as time passes, its as if nothing happened there, except for a small piece of scar tissue.

So adult stem cells divide and form to make new cells to replace the ones lost? How do they know that a certain location 'needs' more stem cells? Why don't majority of wounds either have a depression or a bump on them due to too few or too many cells being created? How do they know? Why are red and white blood cells usually in a range of number, instead of all over the place when bone marrows produce too much or too little?

submitted by /u/Accelerator231
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How do we know with the serology antibody test that the igM and igG are produced because of COVID-19 and not other viral infection ?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 12:41 AM PDT

Basically i read everywhere that the serology test would show us if the infection is present in the body if igM antibodies are present or if we are immune to it or at least went pass it if igG antibodies are present. However how does the test show that these antibodies are because of COVID-19 and not a response to other viral infection ?

submitted by /u/rjulius23
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What causes the peltier effect?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 07:12 PM PDT

I know that this question has been asked a few times on this sub, but none of them really had a clear answer. I think I understand how the seebeck effect works:

When two dissimilar metals (metal A and metal B, where A is more conductive) are connected in a circuit and metal A is heated, the electrons become excited and some of them leave the metal into the circuit. They go into the circuit rather than metal B, because metal B has lower conductivity than the circuit.

The lack of electrons in metal A, and the higher conductivity causes electrons from metal B to go into metal A, and the original electrons from metal A loop back into metal B, completing the loop.

The peltier effect is supposed to be the opposite, that running a current through metal A and B causes heat at one end, and cooling at the other. How exactly does this occur? Why does switching the direction of the current switch the peltier effect?

submitted by /u/MonotoneChameleon
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How does a virus like herpes simplex stay in your body for life, even if your body seems to have successfully fought off an outbreak?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 03:55 PM PDT

Originally posted elsewhere, but was removed because apparently it's referring to a current event.

submitted by /u/ricked_ways
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How does TCA (Krebs Cycle) become depleted?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 10:23 PM PDT

I learned of anaplerosis - the replenishment of depleted metabolic cycles (usually referring to TCA.) That got me wondering how does it gets depleted in the first place?

submitted by /u/Theomortis
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How do the Andes Mountains affect Chile's vegetation and climate in the North and South?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 06:49 PM PDT

From my understanding, ocean winds rise as they brush against large mountain ranges leading to condensation while air falls as it rolls down the other side. The windward side of the mountain thus gains more rain than the leeward side, creating the effect where one side has considerably more tree coverage than the other. This effect can be seen in places such as the Pacific Northwest and the India-Nepal-Tibet borders in the Himalayas.

Southern Chile seems to follow this pattern, with the Chilean side being more green than the Argentina side, but Northern Chile is the opposite (or at least from the satellite view on Google Maps). Can someone explain why this is the case?

submitted by /u/StayMe7on
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How do we know that photons are massless?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 06:18 PM PDT

How many Xylems end Phloems are there in a tree on average?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 09:37 PM PDT

I've tried googling it and can't find any answers but I was curious. If there is even a vague answer like "hundreds" or "thousands" that would help heaps anyway. Thanks!

submitted by /u/Ertersy
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Can liquid oxygen be combusted?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 01:52 PM PDT

How do scientists determine r values for infectious diseases?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 03:13 PM PDT

It seems like the r value should vary wildly depending on the environment and population the disease is spreading in, so what does it mean to say the Influenza has an r value of 3 or covid has an r value of 4?

submitted by /u/TarumK
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Did people expect there to be no gravity in space, or did it come as a surprise during the first space mission?

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 08:11 AM PDT

Is there a direct relationship between star type (e.g., G2, K6) and energy output? (And is that its bolometric magnitude?)

Posted: 12 Apr 2020 11:06 AM PDT

In looking at the Wikipedia article on stellar classification, I gather that the "Main-sequence luminosity (bolometric)" column of the table in the "Harvard spectral classification" is getting at this, but I'm not sure.

Plus, I'm not sure how this works within the star types. So if that's saying that G-type stars range from 0.6–1.5 of the energy output of our sun, does that mean that a G0 would likely have 1.5x the energy output and a G9 has 0.6x?

submitted by /u/RobertM525
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How will the Corona virus vaccine work?

Posted: 13 Apr 2020 12:29 AM PDT

I'm not sure if this has been asked before but how will the Covid-19 vaccine work? I saw news article a while ago about people getting infected even after recovering from said disease. I know that(correct me if I'm wrong) a vaccine works by injecting a weaker version of the virus into the body so the body can make antibodies but what if the disease can reinfect the people who recovered?
P.S. sorry for any punctuation or grammar errors currently too anxious to think about it lol

submitted by /u/SuqdiqPurmani
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