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Friday, October 29, 2021

How do vaccine manufactures plan to test new COVID vaccines such as ones designed for the Delta variant now that a large portion of the population is vaccinated and those that aren't are hesitant to take approved vaccines?

How do vaccine manufactures plan to test new COVID vaccines such as ones designed for the Delta variant now that a large portion of the population is vaccinated and those that aren't are hesitant to take approved vaccines?


How do vaccine manufactures plan to test new COVID vaccines such as ones designed for the Delta variant now that a large portion of the population is vaccinated and those that aren't are hesitant to take approved vaccines?

Posted: 29 Oct 2021 02:21 AM PDT

What makes a high, basic pH so dangerous?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 08:23 AM PDT

We're studying pH in one of my science classes and did a lab involving NaOH, and the pH of 13/14 makes it one of the most basic substances. The bottle warned us that it was corrosive, which caught me off guard. I was under the impression that basic meant not-acidic, which meant gentle. I'm clearly very wrong, especially considering water has a purely neutral pH.

Low pH solutions (we used HCl too) are obviously harsh and dangerous, but if a basic solution like NaOH isn't acidic, how is it just as harsh?

Edit: Thanks so much for the explanations, everyone! I'm learning a lot more than simply the answer to my question, so keep the information coming.

submitted by /u/concerninglydumb
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How could an SSRI reduce the likelihood of hospitalization in people with COVID-19?

Posted: 27 Oct 2021 09:30 PM PDT

Apparently a recent Brazilian study gave fluvoxamine in at-risk people who had recently contracted COVID-19. 11% of the SSRI group needed to be hospitalized, compared to 16% of the control group.

[news article about the study]

What's the physiology behind this? Why would someone think to test an SSRI in the first place?

submitted by /u/Konstantynopolitancz
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If you're under a mountain, would the slight increase in gravity from being closer to the core be negated by the mass of the mountain above you?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 07:42 AM PDT

Had a student ask be this today.

submitted by /u/SamWise050
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If Coniferous trees are able to live year round without hibernating compared to Deciduous trees, why haven't Conifers taken over areas that go through seasonal change?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 01:33 PM PDT

I am well aware that Deciduous trees don't "die" when they hibernate in the Winter, but this thought came up when wondering how efficient Coniferous trees are at producing oxygen year round, non stop, compared to Deciduous trees.

Does it really just come down to climate, location, and evolution? I Haven't found any good information online for this so an explanation would help.

submitted by /u/Le_Rekt_Guy
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Does water count as boson, since it has even number of baryons and electrons?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 07:17 AM PDT

I've read somewhere that a boson is any particle with integer spin. And alpha particle is a boson too because it consists of an even number of fermions (in this case, proton and neutron).

So if any composite particle consists of even number of fermions, shouldn't water molecule count as boson too? Normal water has one 16-Oxygen and two 1-Hydrogens, so the baryons (which are fermions) are even, and the electrons (fermions too) are even too.

But there's nowhere said that water is a boson, so I must be wrong somewhere…

submitted by /u/Typhoonfight1024
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Does your brain hold all the memories of your life but only chooses to show you a few hundred, or does it overwrite itself, "painting over" the older memories with newer ones?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 12:19 PM PDT

Environmental Psychologists: Has research been done on how interior spaces with sharp vertices impacts mood/outlook? And/or, how would universally curved spaces in building interiors change human response on an individual/collective level?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 08:39 AM PDT

I have seen articles before alluding to the fact that people in some western cultures where "boxy" architecture is the norm produce different results on tests, but as far as I can recall, that was specifically with respect to our spatial understanding of the world and recreation of it through drawings rather than with respect to changes in mood or outlook.

Has there been any research on this latter front, and if so, what were some of the conclusions?

Thanks in advance for your expertise.

submitted by /u/shane_4_us
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When does velocity in lagrangian approach equals velocity in eulerian approach (fluid mechanics)?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 03:34 PM PDT

How dense is the plasma inside fusion reactors?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 12:55 PM PDT

How does one mathematically determine the trajectories of fission products and neutrons being ejected from induced fission of a singular Uranium-235 isotope and a neutron?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 01:30 PM PDT

In the wikipedia article on nuclear fission there is an animation demonstrating the two uranium masses coming into close proximity and a neutron hitting a Uranium-235 isotope and splitting into two fission products along two additional neutrons being ejected in different directions from the interaction. How does one mathematically determine the trajectories of these products and neutrons to accurately simulate nuclear fission? Does the attack angle of the initial neutron play a crucial role in determining these trajectories?

submitted by /u/spin_flip
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If we found carbon based, DNA, life on Mars, is it possible to determine an Earth / Mars origin?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 12:08 PM PDT

If carbon based life which encoded information using DNA or RNA was discovered on Mars very similar to Earth life. Would it be possible to determine if it had a lineage to earth life?

Even further… if it is possible to determine. Could we also determine which planet that life had its genesis? (Which life came first)

submitted by /u/andrewmclagan
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Trying to learn about ultrasound and I get that sound is reflected at an interface proportional to the difference in acoustic impedance between the two materials but what I can't find is a physical explanation for why that would be the case. Can someone help?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 01:57 PM PDT

I find it especially weird that it works in both directions equally, for instance nearly 100% of sound is reflected going from air to solid AND solid to air. Why??

submitted by /u/Depensity
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Is it possible to create gasoline from atmospheric carbon and water?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 04:24 AM PDT

If not why not, and if possible in theory, what are the practical hurdles?

submitted by /u/lksdjsdk
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Could a hypersonic reentry parachute be able to replace an ablative heat shield?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 11:12 AM PDT

Why does the flame of a lighter not combust the butane still in the lighter itself and explode?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 12:02 PM PDT

And if I hold a flame in front of a flammable aerosol, is there a chance of the can exploding in my hands?

submitted by /u/LuigiBamba
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What's the deal with waveguide modes?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 01:36 PM PDT

I know in rectangular waveguides you can have different TE and TM modes with cutoffs dependent on the specific dimensions of the waveguide, but is there any advantage to using a different mode?

For example, say you have a WR90 and you can transmit up to 18Ghz, that gives you five modes to work with: TE10, TE20, TE01, TE11, and TM11. Is there any reason you would pick one particular mode? And when you transmit at 18Ghz aren't all five modes propagating? If they are, can you pick out specific modes on the other end of the guide?

submitted by /u/Doctor_Space
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Do the large lakes of North America have a common geological/geographical origin?

Posted: 27 Oct 2021 06:34 PM PDT

When I was younger, me and my dad were looking at a map of North America, when he pointed out that a number of huge lakes - including Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, Lake Athabasca, Lake Winnipeg and the Great Lakes - seem to cut an almost linear northwest-southeast slash across the continent. He wondered why that was. Now I do too. Is this just a coincidence, or is there a common link between them that causes them to do this? I know there was once a large glacial lake in the area, could that have something to do with it?

submitted by /u/Dattix
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What frequency do we experience as the loudest (same db level)?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 01:06 PM PDT

Why are ketones not consideres secondary aldehydes?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 06:13 AM PDT

When the hydroxy group from alcohols is on a carbon atom bonded to two other, the molecule is a secondary alcohol, If the carbon atom is bonded to one, or non in the case of methanol, it is a primary alcohol.

The difference here is analagous to the difference between ketones and aldehydes, so why aren't ketones secondary aldehydes?

submitted by /u/Rad_Knight
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What are Conditions correlated with lack of sunlight but not ameliorated by vitamin D supplementation?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 07:54 AM PDT

What are Conditions correlated to lack of vitamin D that are not ameliorated by vitamin D supplementation? I read somewhere once that there are conditions related to lack of sunlight exposure that are not ameliorated by vitamin D supplementation. In other words there are things that are caused by low sunlight exposure that are not related to vitamin D but are caused by something else that sunlight can effect. Does anybody know what these conditions are? Is anyone cognizant of the method of action in sunlight exposure that are functional in these conditions? The article was not clear and I have been dying to find out what they are.

submitted by /u/stylus2000
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How recently did we discover/understand evaporation?

Posted: 27 Oct 2021 04:06 PM PDT

Were people 10,000 years ago like, "Yo, Where did my water go?" What theories did we have about evaporation before we knew what was actually happening?

submitted by /u/freshggg
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What is the speed of the hot gases exiting the combustor of a jet engine?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 05:54 PM PDT

Are the hot gases from a combustor of a jet engine exiting at subsonic or supersonic speeds?

submitted by /u/dragonmidnight
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Difference between polymerase I and exonuclease?

Posted: 28 Oct 2021 05:39 PM PDT

Biology student here. If pol I removes primers and proofreads, does that make pol I an exonuclease?

submitted by /u/vivi521me
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Wednesday, October 27, 2021

What does it mean to “solve” Einstein's field equations?

What does it mean to “solve” Einstein's field equations?


What does it mean to “solve” Einstein's field equations?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 07:53 AM PDT

I read that Schwarzschild, among others, solved Einstein's field equations.

How could Einstein write an equation that he couldn't solve himself?

The equations I see are complicated but they seem to boil down to basic algebra. Once you have the equation, wouldn't you just solve for X?

I'm guessing the source of my confusion is related to scientific terms having a different meaning than their regular English equivalent. Like how scientific "theory" means something different than a "theory" in English literature.

Does "solving an equation" mean something different than it seems?

Edit: I just got done for the day and see all these great replies. Thanks to everyone for taking the time to explain this to me and others!

submitted by /u/MichaelApproved
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology

Posted: 27 Oct 2021 07:00 AM PDT

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!

submitted by /u/AutoModerator
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If most matter gets hot as it expands and cools as it contracts, why is it that Freon refrigerant cools down as it goes through expansion?

Posted: 27 Oct 2021 01:10 AM PDT

I'm learning about the refrigeration cycle and this is confusing to me as I've always read how objects expand when hot (metal, water, wood, etc) and contract when cool.

submitted by /u/HumanPersonDude1
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Since spacecraft are electrically floating ground, are there any issues with docking spacecraft that are a different voltage potential? And since near-earth space is filled with a very thin electrically charged plasma, does this cause a charge to accumulate?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 10:47 AM PDT

[mechanical engineering/planatery] why is 3 km/s considered as hypervelocity?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 09:10 AM PDT

going by this wikipedia article on hypervelocity

wouldn't it be more accurate to describe it as hypersonic?

afte rall in space we have hypervelocity objects flying closer to a few thousands of kilometers per second with the highest theoretically calculated being 48,000,000 km/h or 13,333 km/s which does make the hypervelocity limit on earth seem a bit too low to coin it as such

submitted by /u/MLPorsche
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How does zero gravity affect human physiological processes?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 05:48 PM PDT

I'm assuming that a lot of human body processes rely at least in part on gravity being a factor (blood flow, swallowing food, etc), does anyone know if astronauts have to do anything special to counteract this, or does zero G not affect those kinds of things at all?

submitted by /u/-hellogoodbye--
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Why is epinephrine a dopamine agonist?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 02:48 PM PDT

I know epinephrine is made out of dopamine, so it makes sense that dopamine is an epinephrine agonist, but why the opposite is also true? What is the mechanism behind it?

submitted by /u/Gabrielr66y
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Is there any truth to the idea of the "lost continents"?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 06:01 PM PDT

I'm not talking about Pangea or Gondwana, but for example Zealandia, "the 8th continent".

This video has a lots of views and likes and makes me confused. Are a lot of people being tricked into believing nonsense? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmFUFnMj5Jw

submitted by /u/Vargohoat99
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Why are mid-ocean ridges “staggered” (leading to transform boundaries)?

Posted: 26 Oct 2021 09:52 AM PDT

I can picture how two offset spreading centers leads to a transform boundary, but why should they be offset in the first place? Why should there be many mini-transform boundaries along a mid-ocean ridge, instead of the ridge just being a uniform line (or curve in the Earth's case)?

Just something that occurred to me when seeing a map of plate boundaries.

submitted by /u/opteryx5
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Why aren't the relative melting and boiling points of metals consistent?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 05:13 PM PDT

Why does tin have a low melting point but a very high boiling point when zinc has a higher melting point than tin but a much lower boiling point?

Shouldn't the inter-atomic forces that make a higher melting point also make a higher boiling point?

submitted by /u/AshingiiAshuaa
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Tuesday, October 26, 2021

Does the rainfall from once-in-a-lifetime storms help drought conditions?

Does the rainfall from once-in-a-lifetime storms help drought conditions?


Does the rainfall from once-in-a-lifetime storms help drought conditions?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 08:41 AM PDT

Yesterday, the bomb cyclone that hit California dropped record rainfall on many locations in the state. My question is whether this record rainfall is as beneficial to overall drought conditions as a year that gets higher than average rainfall over a period of months? Like is this water able to enter the water table or does it just runoff into streams/rivers and eventually the ocean without being usable for consumers?

submitted by /u/OStateDeadHead
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Can "hybrid" caves form, in which some chambers are lava tubes, and others made by limestone dissolving?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 02:13 PM PDT

I'm wondering about speleogenesis - the formation of cave systems. As I understand it, there are really only 3 types of caverns - those formed when groundwater dissolves holes into limestone karsts, those formed by lava flows after the lava recedes, and the rare case of sub-glacial ice caves formed between a layer of ice and a stone floor as the glacier melts.

What I am wondering is, could you get a situation where a limestone cave and a lava tube cave connect or overlap? Perhaps a way to think of this is "can you find both lava and limestone in the same place?".

submitted by /u/Stewart_Games
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How is the magnetism of bar magnet the same force as in an electromagnet?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 11:58 AM PDT

So I get how changing the E field generates the B field, and vice versa and how that lets us create electromagnets. I even get how SR explains the changing reference frames so that what's a B field w.r.t. one coordinate system could be an E field w.r.t. another coordinate system. What I don't get is how "classical" (for lack of a better term) magnets come in. What's the reference frame where a bar magnet actually generates an electric force instead of a magnetic force?

I know magnetism in "classical" magnets and things like iron is due to the spin of electrons and if "spin" in QM actually meant "spin" in the usual sense, it'd made perfect sense how this is ultimately the same thing as how electromagnets work. But it's been emphasized to me MANY times that the "spin" of a particle does NOT mean the particle is actually spinning, but instead spin it's own separate property that doesn't have a classical analog. OK, so then how does it have the same effect on the E field at an atomic level as macroscopic movement does to the E field on a macroscopic level? To be clear, I'm not disputing that "spin" doesn't mean the particle is actually spinning. I'm just very confused about a force generated by some mysterious quantum property with no classical analog is the same as the force generated by electromagnetics.

submitted by /u/dcfan105
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How was the mRNA in COVID-19 vaccine created?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 05:34 PM PDT

I was wondering if they used CRISPR Cas-9 to edit the mRNA for the vaccine. I couldn't find any sources how specifically how they made the mRNA

submitted by /u/jac5423
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How can fish be so active in cold water when other cold blooded animals like reptiles and amphibians need the Sun to warm up?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 08:35 PM PDT

I have two fish tanks one half full of water with a turtle. The turtle needs to bask in a heat lamp for at least half the day to have the energy to go "hunting" around his terrarium. In a different cold water tank I have some very active and energetic fish that seem to swim non-stop and only have to eat every other day.

submitted by /u/AnyOldUserNameWiIIDo
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What makes a caterpillar become a moth or butterfly?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 09:46 PM PDT

Monday, October 25, 2021

How do we actually know the number of protons in a nucleus/atomic numbers?

How do we actually know the number of protons in a nucleus/atomic numbers?


How do we actually know the number of protons in a nucleus/atomic numbers?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 08:24 PM PDT

I'm just curious as to the method by which atomic numbers for each element were discovered. We obviously don't have microscopes that can see down to that level, so it's clearly not known by direct visual means, but I've struggled to find a good answer through search engines.

submitted by /u/Aggravating_Judge_31
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What is the meaning when people say “99.99% the speed of light” instead of just speed of light?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 01:15 AM PDT

I hear this phrase a lot and it doesn't make much sense to me.

Since the speed of light is a big number, I know a lot can change in that last 0.01%, does something else significant happen when that transition is made?

Also I know that in order to accelerate anything with mass to speed c, it would require infinite energy, but to accelerate to 0.9999c would that require finite energy?

submitted by /u/sssinc
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Are there any avian species that haven’t evolved significantly since the Cretaceous mass extinction event?

Posted: 25 Oct 2021 05:39 AM PDT

I know that the cassowary emerged around 60 M.y.a but do you know of any avian species that go back further, preferably pre Chicxulub?

submitted by /u/ReubFrFx
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How long does it typically take for a planet to form?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 10:13 PM PDT

Are there any jet aircraft that carry their own oxidizer?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 10:39 PM PDT

I know that during normal operation jet aircraft use air compressors to scavenge oxidizer from the atmosphere, but I'm wondering if there's ever a use case for carrying extra oxidizer on a jet aircraft.

For example, suppose you had a fuel system that could dump more fuel into the combustion chamber than the air compressor could manage, you could add extra oxidizer directly to the combustion maybe for a higher performance boost than would normally be possible with a purely air-breathing engine.

Or for another example, what if an aircraft at very high altitude wasn't able to scavenge enough oxygen to fully generate the thrust it wanted/needed.

submitted by /u/EZ-PEAS
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How Do Engineers Work Around Material Fatigue?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 11:25 PM PDT

I've yet to see bridges, towers, or roller coasters taken apart to be replaced due to material fatigue, yet I've seen several machines taken apart and parts replaced when fatigue sets in. Even the shop i used to work at had the roof cross members replaced when they became fatigued (granted, these beams were over 100 years old). Even my machine's dies need replaced when you start having them flex more during bending due to fatigue. There doesn't seem to even be much information on fatigue and how it's calculated. So how is all of this stuff figured out, prevented, and compensated for?

If you have any book suggestions on this subject, I'd appreciate the recommendation as well.

submitted by /u/djinbu
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Does an allergic reaction to an ingredient in a vaccine make the vaccine less effective?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 02:48 PM PDT

The electrostatic deflection of water, and Can a stream of water be deflected by a magnetic field?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 12:20 PM PDT

A thin stream of water may be deflected or 'bent' by an electrostatic charge, and this can be demonstrated with a charged object such as a comb, and a thin stream from a faucet. Questions:

Would the deflection be larger if de-ionised water was used?

Given that water is affected both by electrostatic charge and by gravity, why is the water apparently not also deflected by a very strong magnetic field, say from a powerful electromagnet or neodymium permanent magnet?

submitted by /u/a-renrael
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How is it possible for a river to dry up completely then go back to normal without a mass extinction level event?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 08:33 PM PDT

So I was just reading up on some doomsday news and came across an article regarding the salmon stock in the Yukon River collapsing.

I went and did some digging and came across another article saying it dried up within 4 days after glaciers retreated back in 2017. If thats the case shouldn't everything have died off?

Also how did the river return to normal if the glaciers haven't magically gained new ice?

I find this kind of stuff unfortunate but fascinating - any info is appreciated!

submitted by /u/bermudaliving
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Why are congenital brain deformities(i.e. Alobar Holoprosencephaly, Anencephaly, Syncephalus) so deadly and if physically possible can current medical technology keep these children alive beyond a few hours?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 08:01 PM PDT

With Covid-19 boosters rolling out, are we seeing a drop in antibody titres in the months after the third shot just as we did after the second?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 05:35 AM PDT

I keep reading that we might find the boosters fade and that we could need to do them regularly etc - but there's little out there about how they are actually performing. Have meaningful patterns cropped up in the data, or is it too early to tell?

submitted by /u/bnndforfatantagonism
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If tectonic plate elevation causes mountains to form, why are there valleys between mountain ranges?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 10:26 AM PDT

I.e. why is it not a continuous line or 'spine' of mountain peaks? Is it because the tectonic plates are shattered beneath so collision causes more than one pieces to be elevated? Or is it that after they've formed a mountain, they move on and make another one a mile away, like a blunt knife pressing on dough?

submitted by /u/nickoskal024
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Lots of products claim to "boost" or "speed up" your metabolism. Is that actually a thing that can be done, and if so, what's the science behind it?

Posted: 23 Oct 2021 04:11 PM PDT

What is the general effect of exposing a plant to continuous illumination?

Posted: 23 Oct 2021 06:30 PM PDT

I've seen some mixed results- some implying negative, some positive on the effect of constant light exposure on plants.

Is the effect quite subjective to the species of plant, or can the trend be generalized?

Can plants get "stressed" like animals do under constant light exposure-in a plant's physiological manner of stress, ofc.

submitted by /u/parkeddingobrains
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What treatment(s) does the US do to its water that makes it safe to drink that other countries don't do?

Posted: 24 Oct 2021 09:55 AM PDT

How does sound travel after breaking the sound barrier?

Posted: 23 Oct 2021 04:03 PM PDT

As the title implies, how does the sound from a super sonic vehicle change after it's broken the barrier? Is there a significant difference in the way the waves travel/how the human ear perceives it? Does it change frequency?

submitted by /u/AndoftheSevenSeas
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