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Thursday, March 4, 2021

How many mutations does the average human have, if <1 what % of people have at least 1 mutation present?

How many mutations does the average human have, if <1 what % of people have at least 1 mutation present?


How many mutations does the average human have, if <1 what % of people have at least 1 mutation present?

Posted: 04 Mar 2021 02:57 AM PST

“James Webb will not actually orbit the Earth - instead it will sit at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 1.5 million km away” - What does this mean?

Posted: 04 Mar 2021 06:26 AM PST

I've been reading about the James Webb Telescope and struggling to wrap my head around exactly what "sitting at the Lagrange point" means.

Does this mean it will orbit the Sun, following almost the same path as the Earth, but stay in the same place from the perspective of the earth?

submitted by /u/s1yh1r
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Are there any studies going on focused on finding out the physical differences that make some people have severe reactions to covid-19 while others are asymptomatic?

Posted: 04 Mar 2021 12:59 AM PST

What is the Dirac Sea and how does it work?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 07:24 PM PST

Observed Light Speed from a Rocket Never Changes?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 08:32 PM PST

Hello all, I've tried finding answers to a question I have on google but can't seem to find any that make much sense to me therefore I've chosen to write here for some clarification.

Say a rocket moves away from Earth at 99% the speed of light and I then shine a laser towards that rocket. Once that laser catches up to the rocket, will it be observed to travel at 1% the speed of light since we are already moving at 99% the speed? I understand that the speed of light remains constant for everyone but if we observe it to travel at 100% the speed of light from the rocket, doesn't that mean that it is technically moving faster than the speed of light? I know my last point isn't true but I'm just having a hard time wrapping my head around the concept of light speed remaining constant regardless of your speed. Thanks!

submitted by /u/itsespressodepresso
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Is the shortness of breath associated with COVID-19 a result of reduced lung capacity, impaired oxygen absorption, or something else entirely?

Posted: 04 Mar 2021 12:49 AM PST

What happens to an atmosphere that begins with flat initial conditions, and no forcing or damping?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 05:44 PM PST

Let's say I implement the Navier Stokes equations in a solver for which errors due to numerics are negligible. The initial conditions are:

-- isothermal for the temperature field

-- zero for all velocity components

-- everywhere flat geopotential

If I presume that the surface beneath the atmosphere is rotating, what happens? Do I see evolution in pressure, temperature, etc. due to the Coriolis force alone? What if I turn off the surface rotation? Are the initial conditions then a steady state which remain for all time?

submitted by /u/GoSox2525
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What kind of tasks are Quantum computers better at compared to classical computers?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 08:13 AM PST

I understand they are better at prime factorization which could make modern cryptography irrelevant. They also have many uses in the Biosciences like thing related to protein folding. What else do they excell at compared to classical computers?

submitted by /u/newmanstartover
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Will Betelgeuse birth new stars when it finally goes nova?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 12:50 PM PST

Considering the famed nova we are waiting for, I was wondering if the star is big enough to give birth to new smaller stars when it finally dies.

I had a hard time locating information about this specifically. But is Betelgeuse a star with enough mass to do so or are the stars that could create newer stars already gone?

submitted by /u/zauraz
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In a theoretical scenario where humanity has colonized planets beyond the stars or even planets in our own solar system, assuming a common government and culture, how would we keep time consistent between them?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 01:17 PM PST

I'm not really sure which flair tag I should use here, since there's multiple disciplines that could apply to this question so I hope I'm doing this right.

As far as the sciences go, this is less of a hard science question than it is a soft science question for the most part (as in, relating to things like anthropology, sociology, etc.), though there's probably a physics application to the question too since we're talking with different frames of reference with regard to time.

Sci-Fi stories with multiple planets still do the "X years/months/weeks later" transition, even though planets of different sizes and rotations would have different calendars and would measure time differently. Considering the delivery of things like messages, goods, etc. is important--vital, even--for the functioning of a stable society, and since these things are all dependent on a common understanding of time, how would this actually work when entirely different yearly calendars and day cycles are used?

Like, I can't wrap my mind around it. The closest point of comparison I can think of is the delivery of packages across different time zones here on Earth, which would mean that time zone differences would need to be taken into account, but that's just on a scale of hours and minutes, which are the same for everywhere. When you're talking travel to other planets, which have day/night cycles of varying hours which are different from Earth's 24-hour cycle, to say nothing of the adjustment of their respective calendars which could have more or less months than Earth itself, and that's not even getting into the seasons, let alone the fact that time would also be measured differently during the trip in space due to relativity.

So how would we keep it consistent? What system would we use? It seems like a small thing, but considering the non-zero possibility of humanity leaving Earth to form permanent settlements elsewhere due to either exploration or lack of resources (assuming the species doesn't eradicate itself first), this strikes me as a pretty huge logistical problem (at least, as long as we're assuming that human society is continuous across the solar and extra-solar colonies--I suppose that if each planet were isolationist and kept to themselves, this would be far less of an issue).

This has been bugging me for a while and it's going to bug me all day if I don't at least try to get an answer.

submitted by /u/Songbird_Storyteller
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What makes some genes less suitable for mRNA therapies than others? Are longer genes less suitable?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 12:17 PM PST

What causes radio emission for Sagittarius A*?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 08:48 AM PST

I've read that radio source Sagittarius A* is a supermassive black hole. Why is it so "bright" in radio waves if EMR can't escape black holes?

submitted by /u/rcbake
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How much can leaf cutter ants actually lift?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 04:11 AM PST

Everywhere I look it says 20 times their own weight but never a number in grams or anything.

submitted by /u/Wookieman09
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Why cannot we see space junk and about 6,000 satellites in live broadcasts of ISS/NASA from space?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 10:31 AM PST

Wednesday, March 3, 2021

What controls the production of ear wax?

What controls the production of ear wax?


What controls the production of ear wax?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 08:01 PM PST

Are vaccines preventative only? Are there any diseases that can be cured by administering their respective vaccine? What's the case for COVID-19?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 04:55 PM PST

From my little knowledge about biology I know vaccines are given before you get infected with a disease so that your body already has the respective antibodies in case you do get infected. Are there any vaccines that can be given when the person is ill already? To help maybe boost the process of making antibodies. Additionally can the COVID-19 vaccine be given to people already suffering from the virus? Will there be any ill effects?

submitted by /u/dreamylucifer
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If we can vaccinate chickens against salmonella, why haven’t we done the same for humans?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 06:25 AM PST

Could we eliminate the Flu if we all got vaccinated for the flu and wore masks during flu season?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 04:45 AM PST

Masks have been pretty effective at keeping my family healthy this year and I was wondering if some viruses like the flu are so endemic that there will always be substantial spread, or if mask use would be effective at isolating or eliminating the flu?

submitted by /u/FrebTheRat
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AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I am Tel Aviv University cancer biologist, Prof. Neta Erez. I'm developing a novel approach to treating breast cancer. Ask Me Anything!

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 04:00 AM PST

Hi! I am Tel Aviv University cancer biologist, Prof. Neta Erez. I study the tumor metastasis microenvironment.

Tumors are more than just a bunch of cancer cells. They are better described as multicellular organisms. In each tumor there are complex interactions with immune cells, which cause inflammation processes in the connective tissue and blood vessels.

In my lab, we study these interactions to understand how tumor cells "hijack" physiological pathways and use them to support their growth. Additionally, we also study the link between cancer and inflammation,specifically how cancer cells metastasize and grow in distant organs from their original host.

Prof. Erez studies the biology of tumor metastasis, focusing on the metastatic microenvironment, cancer-related inflammation and the role of stromal and immune cells in facilitating the early and late stages of metastasis. Prof. Erez's work focuses on these crucial aspects of cancer. She uses mouse models of carcinogenesis and metastasis of melanoma, breast, and ovarian carcinoma. The main goal of her research is to identify and characterize key molecular pathways in the communication between tumor cells and their microenvironment that can be targeted by novel therapeutics.

Prof. Erez began her academic career at the Weizmann Institute of Science. She obtained her PhD in the field of molecular cell biology under the guidance of Prof. Varda Rotter. Supported by a fellowship from the Cancer Research Institute (CRI), Prof. Erez carried out her postdoctoral research in the laboratory of Prof. Doug Hanahan at UCSF, working in the field of tumor biology (2005-2010). During her postdoctoral fellowship she demonstrated a novel role for cancer-associated fibroblasts in mediating tumor-promoting inflammation. Following her postdoctoral work, she joined the Department of Pathology at the Sackler Faculty of Medicine in October 2010, and currently serves as the Department Chair.

I will be on at 10am PT (1 PM ET, 18 UT), Ask Me Anything!

Learn more about my lab: https://www.netaerezlab.sites.tau.ac.il/

Username: /u/IsraelinSF


EDIT: Please note the correction in time.

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 07:00 AM PST

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here. Ask away!

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Why is the protective factor of covid vaccines and immunity through previous infection different?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 05:46 AM PST

Im Brazillian and im a health professional, so im almost embarassed of asking this, but i was reading about our new p.01 covid 19 mutation, and it has been demonstrated that it can dodge with more efficiency the natural immunity that we get after being infected by a non p.01 mutation of covid19, but it doesnt seem to behave the same way in vaccinated people.
What im wondering is: if a vaccine with a weakened virus just triggers a complete immune response and it follows by immunity, just not the severe symptoms that come with the infection, why does it differ from the natural immune response from having a full infection? I mean, it should be the same protection for both natural infection and weakened virus vaccines, if im assuming the same mechanisms are in action, shouldnt it?
I had only one semester in immunology, but this has been bugging me for a few days now.
if i wasnt clear in my question im sorry, i will try to clarify, my english is a little rusty.

submitted by /u/Hypnotic_Mind
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Should I still get the COVID vaccine if I’ve already had COVID?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 01:50 AM PST

If the purpose of a vaccine is to stimulate antibodies as if you were exposed to the disease that you're being vaccinated for, then why should people who have already had COVID still get the vaccine?

submitted by /u/Chibaglover
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In adenovirus vaccines, like the Johnson and Johnson vaccine, how do they get the right DNA inside the viruses?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 02:31 PM PST

What processes do they use to insert the DNA? And how do they manufacture large quantities of them?

submitted by /u/Hack_the_Gibson
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Can we predict earthquake aftershocks, and if yes, with how much accuracy?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 04:13 AM PST

Is carbon fiber a heat conductor or a heat insulator?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 12:25 AM PST

No matter how much I google, I keep getting constantly contradicting results on the thermal conductivity of carbon fiber. Some say that since it has low thermal conductivity that it's an insulator, but I keep constantly seeing other contradictory remarks about it having a lot of potential for heat conductivity, so if anyone can clarify I'd appreciate that.

submitted by /u/ReluctantCucky
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Does the shape of our skulls change over the course of our life from things like sleeping on one side more or leaning against hard surfaces?

Posted: 03 Mar 2021 01:18 AM PST

Say you like to sleep on your left side more often than your right, would that side of the skull eventually have the slightest indentations from being placed against surfaces for a prolonged period of time?

If yes, can you detect these indentations from excavated skulls and make scientific assumptions from them?

submitted by /u/LightShadowMC
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How were ‘eye floaters’ viewed prior to knowledge of the eye’s structure?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 11:33 PM PST

Is there a change in carbon concentration with altitude?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 10:19 PM PST

Have we observed a difference in carbon concentration at ground level, 1 km and 100 km? And if so by how much does it change?

submitted by /u/glakshya02
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Is it posible to have two invisible light beams combine and form a visible spot on the wall? (to the naked human eye at least)

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 05:05 PM PST

Hello guys,

Let me try to be more clear on my question. With invisible light beam i mean a light with a waveform not in the visible spectrum of human eyes, could be infrared or ultraviolet not dangerous to us, but when combined with other light beam that has a slightly different waveform make a visible spot in a wall or in a surface they hit.

One light by itself of course wont be visible to us. But is there any combination of short/long wavelenght lights that when combined become visible to the human eye? If you guys imagine it as laser lights it might make more sense.

I made a crappy drawing but it might help me explain more.

here is the link: https://imgur.com/I8R8K19

Thanks a lot in advance!!!

submitted by /u/InformalAttempt9
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Is there a shape that would create no sonic boom?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 12:30 PM PST

I guess this question has two facets, weather the object is self propelled or not (bullet or rocket)

The mass shouldn't be 0, otherwise what's the point.

Mach 1

That's all I can think of.

submitted by /u/hugo_bauer
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How is the J&J vaccine able to only get away with one dose while still being highly effective?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 09:43 AM PST

All other vaccines are two doses. That includes different types of vaccines such as the mRNA ones (Pfizer and Moderna), the protein ones (Novavax), but even the similar adenovector ones (Astra Zeneca).

How is it that J&J has been able to make a single dose vaccine that is so effective? The other adenovector ones use two doses, so why is the J&J adenovector vaccine any different? I've learned more about immunology in this pandemic, and my understanding is that the second dose helps refine that initial subset of antibodies to greater affinity, as well as create a stronger memory response to prevent re-infection. It seems the J&J vaccine has resolved concern on the first point (the antibodies are definitely strong), but what about the second point (the second dose reinforces the long term memory response)? Is there not still a very real concern that the immunity won't last longer than 6 months or so?

submitted by /u/orangeboomerang
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Is it possible to build a big optical telescope with aperture synthesis, like radio telescopes?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 12:23 PM PST

All the current satellite telescopes are single big pieces of machinery, they are expensive to build and when they fail - they fail completely.

Is it possible to build a lot of smaller telescopes and have them connect in some way on orbit to synthesize images?

Even if these telescopes need to be connected mechanically to be a one big structure, I think it still can be beneficial to have an aperture size of a hundred or two hundred meters. And if you want to make a bigger telescope - "just" build another batch of the same hardware, launch and connect on orbit to existing structure.

I understand it's not easy, but in principle could be easier than building a really big new one-off telescope for more than a decade, spending many billions on it (e.g. JWST).

submitted by /u/Murkt
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Function of a steroid response complex binding to a steroid response element (SRE)?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 12:31 PM PST

Hi all,

Please excuse me if this is a dumb question, but:

During my studies, my textbook outlines that when a sex steroid (such as androgens) binds to a receptor, it creates a steroid-receptor complex that can bind to specific DNA sequences in chromatin, also known as steroid response elements (SREs). However, my textbook doesn't highlight why a sex steroid would need to bind to DNA.

What role does this play in the overall conformation of DNA? Does the complex affect replication/transcription? And if yes, why would it need to do so? Does it affect hormonal levels/production within the body?

I tried googling this, but was unable to locate an answer for it as it's really a finicky question.

Many thanks in advance.

submitted by /u/cowjk
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What are the risks of delaying the second dose of the COVID vaccines beyond manufacturer's guidelines?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 12:04 PM PST

British Columbia (Canada) just announced an aggressive plan to get all residents their first dose by the end of July. In order to reach this goal, they also announced delaying the second dose for up to four months.

Huffington Post Article

submitted by /u/Crakkerz79
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Tuesday, March 2, 2021

If cases were lower with Coronavirus, would that mean less variants?

If cases were lower with Coronavirus, would that mean less variants?


If cases were lower with Coronavirus, would that mean less variants?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 05:06 PM PST

& would it be easier to fight?

submitted by /u/IeatBehrs
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AskScience AMA Series: I'm Herman Pontzer, an anthropologist and professor at Duke University. My new book, BURN, shares new research on how the human metabolism really works so that we can finally improve health and manage weight. AMA!

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 04:00 AM PST

Hi Reddit! I'm Herman Pontzer, PhD, Associate Professor of Evolutionary Anthropology at Duke University and Associate Research Professor of Global Health at the Duke Global Health Institute. I conduct research on the human metabolism through studies with hunter-gatherer tribes like the Hadza in Africa.

In my decade of study in this field, what I've learned challenges the consensus of the diet and exercise industry. We've always been told that exercise increases the number of calories we burn each day, but a doubly labeled water study with the Hadza conducted by me and my research team shows that our bodies have evolved to adjust to our daily level of physical activity, thereby adjusting our metabolism to keep daily energy expenditure within a narrow range, regardless of how active we are. Instead, the key to losing weight and battling the obesity pandemic is regulating the number of calories we consume versus how many we burn. That's not to say we should abandon exercise - it is essential to keeping our bodies healthy and to aging well - but diet is the tool we need to focus on to manage our weight.

My new book, BURN, examines this exciting research taking place outside of traditional labs and reveals how a new understanding of our metabolism can inform our efforts to promote a healthy and sustainable society.

If you're curious about why we can't "earn" that slice of chocolate cake, whether a Paleo diet is actually "Paleo," what the Hadza can teach us about avoiding diseases of civilization like diabetes and obesity, or what it's like to extract a live tick from your head while observing chimpanzees (true story), I am here for it. I am on at 3pm EST (20 UT), AMA!

Username: /u/HermanPontzer

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Does exposure to covid increase immunity for already vaccinated people?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 01:25 AM PST

So, given that we know a 2nd dose of the vaccine boosts immunity, even in the Johnson & Johnson single dose vaccine. What can we say/speculate about how a vaccinated person's level of protection/immunity might increase after exposure to the virus? Is this further exposure, which could be asymptomatic, or is very unlikely to be a case of severe illness, likely to increase immunity?

submitted by /u/idiosynkratique
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What is the R value for asymptomatic Covid compared with symptomatic?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 03:09 AM PST

The viral load would be less as symptoms such as coughing come from damaged alveoli that rupture through the amount of viruses inside them so surely you are less contagious.

submitted by /u/BareHench
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Are all planets spherical?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 06:08 AM PST

Would non-spherical objects, even of larger size, have such odd gravitational forces that they would not orbit around a sun?

submitted by /u/Et3rna1Sunshine
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Why is there no such thing as x-ray or gamma ray goggles like their are night vision goggles (infra-red)?

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 05:01 AM PST

How are limbs reattached during surgery? Wouldn't clots form at the site of reconnected blood vessels? How do nerves neurons "reconnect" if they can't multiply?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 06:54 PM PST

A few questions regarding replantation / anastomosis / reattaching a Limb such as an arm (PS. what is the proper term?) . From my understanding, it's generally done in steps (bones, vessels, nerves, skin, etc)

I remember learning in anatomy that neurons can't multiply/divide/differentiate in a mature nervous system, unlike neuroglia (was doing a compare/contrast at the time). If that is the case, why can nerves be reattached and function properly? What is connecting the two nerves?

Also regarding blood vessels, wouldn't there be a risk of clots forming (slowly recalling the nightmare that is clotting factors...). I feel like stitches would cause bumps in the vessels, which in turn would promote some coagulation on site too. What is used to reconnect these vessels if not stitching?

Wouldn't clotting/coagulation already be occurring in the severed limb? Fibrin already beginning to form? Would reattaching said limb cause any additional risk to the rest of the cardiovascular system by introducing potentially-coaggulated blood into the system?

I apologize if I use any terms incorrectly, and absolutely wouldn't be mind if someone pointed out that somethings I said was false!

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Why heavier gases in the air don't sink to the bottom? Or if they do, how radically different is the air composition in terms of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide as we go up from sea level to mount Everest

Posted: 02 Mar 2021 03:27 AM PST

Why does the relativity energy, mass, and momentum relationship form a right triangle?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 09:56 PM PST

So in relativity there is an equation that links momentum, mass (rest mass), and energy together. It is:

E2 = (PC)2 + (m*C2)2 (with E = energy, P = momentum, m = rest mass, and C = the speed of light)

One thing that stands out immediately is that it is the form of the pythagorean theorem. Namely, that Energy is the hypotenuse and the sides are PC (momentum times the speed of light) and mC2 (the classic old E=mC2 energy.) I know many physicists have a "shut-up and calculate" type of approach to these type of questions, but what does this relationship actually mean? Is there a commonly accepted interpretation of this? What does this imply about the world? To me this seems like a deep and interesting relationship, but I can't find anyone or anything really talking about it online aside from calling it "Einstein's triangle" or just pointing the relationship out.. The wiki shows a picture which illustrates the relationship and calls it "Einstein's Triangle", but not really anything explaining what it actually means.

If I squint my eyes and handwave a bunch, to me it seems like PC is the spatial energy component and mC2 is the time energy component and since they are orthogonal they form a right triangle. But why is the total relativistic energy the hypotenuse? I know one way of "seeing" relativity is that you and everything is always "moving" around at the speed of light, we just "move" more of our time energy and "velocity" to spatial dimensions. In which case, I could see a type of constant hypotenuse like relationship similar to if you are always walking around one step at a time, but just in different directions. The X and Y movements would change, but the hypotenuse is always one step. However, I still don't see why that would imply energy as the hypotenuse? Why can we look at this in a euclidean like way?

IDK, I may be rambling and not saying anything close to right here, but I am very curious about this. It is bugging me and I am hoping someone can clarify this or at least point me to something I can read. I may be missing something totally obvious, so go ahead and tell me why I am dumb, it would be much appreciated.

submitted by /u/Ringnebula13
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How does Fredkin gates bring computational energy cost to a zero?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 11:24 AM PST

Also, Here in this video, what does Phil means when he says that it requires energy to raise information? Around 6 minute mark.

https://youtu.be/jv2H9fp9dT8?t=35

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How much gravity would be required for a light beam shown tangentially on a spherical surface to completely circle around the sphere and end up at the starting point instead of flying outwards?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 08:15 AM PST

When you cut off a lobe of your liver it grows back. But why can't you cut off another lobe over and over again after it has regrown?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 08:16 AM PST

What is AstraZeneca's proper efficacy rate?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 02:16 PM PST

So I have seen some people say that the efficacy is higher than 62% but I can't find any sources so if anyone has a source please comment thank you

submitted by /u/RETROADMAN
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Why are most objects in the solar system around the same inclination?

Posted: 01 Mar 2021 07:54 AM PST

I understand this most likely doesn't apply to every object, but the planets are a good example. The highest inclination of any planet (including Pluto) is Pluto itself at only 17°. Why is that the case? Why don't we have planets that are at all inclinations, even up to 90°?

submitted by /u/TheTeek03
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