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Wednesday, January 9, 2019

When and how did scientists figure out there is no land under the ice of the North Pole?

When and how did scientists figure out there is no land under the ice of the North Pole?


When and how did scientists figure out there is no land under the ice of the North Pole?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 04:43 AM PST

I was oddly unable to find the answer to this question. At some point sailors and scientists must have figured out there was no northern continent under the ice cap, but how did they do so? Sonar and radar are recent inventions, and because of the obviousness with which it is mentioned there is only water under the North Pole's ice, I'm guessing it means this has been common knowledge for centuries.

submitted by /u/amvoloshin
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Does thinking harder burn more calories?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 05:21 AM PST

I have always wondered if brain function burns calories. Does thinking harder burn more calories than not thinking at all? I understand that your brain is always working and running all of your body systems and such, but I'm more curious about conscious thought. For example, if you are reading a complicated manuscript or trying to decipher complex architectural drawings does that take more energy than mindlessly watching TV?

submitted by /u/mirdashewrote
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Why do large clouds form with flat bottoms but small ones are irregular shaped?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 11:50 AM PST

Here's an image of what I mean: https://imgur.com/gallery/qxfiN5u

submitted by /u/GoldenPandaMRW
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Why are train rails usually built on gravel?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 12:47 AM PST

Is there any particular reason for this or is it just cheaper than asphalt/concrete/whatever?

submitted by /u/RazomOmega
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How does the body obtain Vitamin D from Sunlight?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 04:23 AM PST

When two bubbles merge (sharing their surface area), how is the new bubble still "filled" and spherical?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 08:12 AM PST

If I am thinking about this correctly, when two bubbles merge, their surface areas are additive (since that is determined strictly by the number of detergent molecules present).

Due to the increased rate at which volume increases inside a sphere for a given surface area added, where does the "missing" volume come from to fill up the new, larger bubble so it is still spherical after merging?

Shouldn't it be slightly collapsed after merging?

submitted by /u/Natolx
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What’s the difference between the skin healing process of a cut wound and a scald?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 11:52 AM PST

Why is it whenever you see powerful lasers used in labs or other areas they are almost allways green? Is this due to how they are produced or is green light a better wavelength for sensors to pick up?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 02:25 PM PST

Why does Radiation sickness happen, and how does radiation affect your body?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 04:34 AM PST

So if the body is killed by cancer caused by Ionizing radiation damaging your genetic material. Then why does radiation sickness occur, in theory the radiation wouldn't have that quick of an effect? Another question, if the radiation changes our Genes, why don't we ever see any cool or helpful mutations that occur due to radiation?

submitted by /u/Eta5678
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Is there any particular reason why taking successive derivatives of the sinusoidal functions has the same effect as left-shifting the graphs by pi/2?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 07:14 AM PST

Early in our studies of calculus, we are taught that the sinusoidal functions form a cycle of derivatives:

d/dx sin x = cos x d/dx cos x = -sin x d/dx (-sin x) = -cos x d/dx (-cos x) = sin x 

However, we also note that

sin(x + pi/2) = cos x cos(x + pi/2) = -sin x -sin(x+pi/2) = -cos x -cos(x+pi/2) = sin x 

So essentially, for any function f(x) in the set {sin x, cos x, -sin x, -cos x} we have

d/dx f(x) = f(x+pi/2) 

I'd like to know if there is any underlying reason for this, or if it's just coincidence.

submitted by /u/BactaTankVader
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I’ve read that in times of megafauna/flora the atmospheric O2,concentration was 35% instead of the 20% we have currently and that this elevated concentration enabled their large size. Why is increased O2 concentration associated with mega-life?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 03:51 AM PST

Is there a reason why negative data is rarely published?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 02:49 PM PST

This is particularly aimed towards people in the Neuroscience field (learning and memory, neurodegeneration, neuropsychiatric disorders, etc..)

submitted by /u/charismaticdug
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Does heat from a candle in space move gradually and spherically away from it?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 04:00 AM PST

So I saw this post about a candle in space which is round because there is no "up" in space. Does this mean that all the heat moves gradually and spherically? And what happens when the heat reaches a wall. Does it get reflected in some kind of way?

Bonus question: If so, does it mean that a candle in space burns out faster because the heat is staying closer to the candle/wax itself?

submitted by /u/Zino-Rino
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Why is gold so good at reflecting in the IR range?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 02:41 AM PST

Is there a point where its reflectance starts to deteriorate?

submitted by /u/danilon62
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 07:11 AM PST

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.

The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.

Ask away!

submitted by /u/AutoModerator
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I just found out wild hamsters are rare. What's the story on how we tamed them?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 09:31 PM PST

How did early humans' sleeping habits change during the winter months?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 12:05 AM PST

How did the shorter days of winter affect the sleeping habits of humans before indoor lighting existed? Generally speaking, diurnal animals are active during daylight and settle down for sleep when the sun goes down, but if the average sleep cycle for a human is 6-9 hours, wouldn't strictly following the daylight schedule cause oversleeping? Did humans just sleep more during winter months, or did they remain active after sundown like most of us do today?

submitted by /u/Bad_Wulph
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Is there a preference between GWAS and QTL for gene mapping and if so why?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 03:30 AM PST

This is a pretty specific question so apologies for not being very 'exciting' or interesting for discussion like a lot of the posts here are.

submitted by /u/_jedallen
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Why hasn't the gas on Jupiter fully mixed together yet? Why is it covered in visibly distinct regions of gas rather than being a single color like Neptune or Uranus?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 05:53 PM PST

How can people endure so much heat while firewalking?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 03:33 AM PST

How does spin allow objects to fly straight? Bullets and frisbees for example.

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 02:14 PM PST

what makes soda flat?

Posted: 09 Jan 2019 01:38 AM PST

I was going to ask what makes soda fizzy, but more specifically, a soda fell out of the fridge. Knowing that it would likely erupt after being agitated, I left it for a day, and it was almost completely flat. Why was this? The gas was surely still in the can, but was it released from the liquid in some way?

submitted by /u/Serendiplodocus
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How do scientists know how much carbon there was originally in a sample when carbon dating? I understand that they take advantage of the half-life to the age of the object, but don’t they also need to know much was originally there? Also, what is the uncertainty on these measurements?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 02:43 PM PST

Tuesday, January 8, 2019

If the brain evolved in vertebrates as a part of the spinal cord, why do brains exist in animals without spinal cords, such as insects and other arthropods? Is this an example of convergent evolution, and how different really are vertebrate brains from invertebrate brains?

If the brain evolved in vertebrates as a part of the spinal cord, why do brains exist in animals without spinal cords, such as insects and other arthropods? Is this an example of convergent evolution, and how different really are vertebrate brains from invertebrate brains?


If the brain evolved in vertebrates as a part of the spinal cord, why do brains exist in animals without spinal cords, such as insects and other arthropods? Is this an example of convergent evolution, and how different really are vertebrate brains from invertebrate brains?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 09:14 PM PST

How is the ISS insulated?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 08:06 AM PST

Why does a light bulb glow when electrons pass through it?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 03:32 AM PST

So I am a chemistry teacher in high school and I know a bit about physics here and there but my colleague was struggling with the question why a lightbulb glows when the electrons pass through it?

submitted by /u/Sjeetopotato1
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Scientists! Please discuss how the government shutdown will affect you and your work here.

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 08:16 AM PST

All discussion is welcome, but let's try to keep focus on how this shutdown will/could affect science specifically.

Also, let's try to keep the discussion on the potential impact and the role of federal funding in research - essentially as free from partisan politics as possible.

For reference to what happened during the shutdown last time, please see this thread.

submitted by /u/ren5311
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How do astronauts keep close to the ISS?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 07:44 AM PST

Hi guys, first of all sorry everyone for my bad English and for my lack of competence in the subject but I'm very curious about this question. I've seen a lot of pictures or footage of astronauts in the free space who move just by little air expulsion from their space suit. Buuut... Any object in the earth's orbit must be going at an elevate speed, how can they keep close to the space station when they just jump off of it? Once they they jump they keep moving at the same speed for the inertia force? And if yes, does the suit completely protect them from the consequences?

submitted by /u/Jeje99
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Is Gene editing possible on adult humans or can only be done on embryos ? Why ?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 02:15 AM PST

How do spin-orbit resonances work?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 05:17 AM PST

More specifically, why did the moon form a 1:1 spin-orbit resonance with the Earth but Mercury formed a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance with the Sun? What circumstances lead to different results?

submitted by /u/m0ser
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How is electricity actually consumed?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 11:52 PM PST

I've never understood what happens to an electron as it flows into and out of an electric motor, transistor, etc. What's happening at the electron level as they do their "work?"

submitted by /u/fandingo
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How does the earth's climate vary in an east-west direction rather than the usual polar direction?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 07:02 AM PST

This post shows the change in US' wet-dry boundary. Isn't climate varying based on how far north of south you are?

submitted by /u/saainte
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Can you have more then one intermolecular (attractive) force in a molecule. i.e (dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonding or LDF and dipole-dipole etc.)?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 05:34 AM PST

What are antioxidants and what do they do?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 05:26 PM PST

[Optics] Do consumer plastics have unique visual properties that can be detected by a camera or sensors?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 10:24 PM PST

Since the tongue is a muscular organ, would it be possible to strengthen the muscles in it the same way you would, say, biceps? Would it actually get larger as it got stronger?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 11:01 AM PST

I know this is random, and maybe it belongs in shower thoughts, but I am actually really curious. Also, this isn't a sex thing.

To be clear, I'm not talking about therapeutic "tongue strengthening" exercises. I'm actually talking about exercises with the specific intention of building muscle.

submitted by /u/ImgurianAkom
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Why do cameras need to focus? Why can't everything be in focus at once?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 01:48 PM PST

Does the Fusiform Face Area have mnemonic applications?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 08:52 PM PST

Like the method of loci which employs our super-efficient spatial memory to create associations, is there potential for the Fusiform Face Area to help us encode non-face information?

Humans are insanely good at remembering faces, and there are even "super-recognizers" out there who can instantly and accurately identify a face they've only seen once, many many years ago. Many work in law enforcement.

So could it be possible to utilize this brain region's power to retrieve/encode things like, say, the exact details of a painting? Is its use limited to visual information only? As a side question, what are its limits as to what it considers a "face"? If I stared at an image of a face and watched as its features morphed into something else entirely, at what point would I stop being able to recognize that image with pinpoint accuracy?

submitted by /u/denz609
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Do super symmetrical particals have antimatter counterparts?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 03:26 PM PST

In the SS model, are anti-sleptons and anti-squarks a thing?

submitted by /u/Da_Gr8_M8
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What makes the myosin head in the muscle pop back?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 01:53 PM PST

I know when the myosin head connects with an actin filament it pops back which creates forward motion(muscle contraction), but why exactly does it pop back ?

submitted by /u/Daziboy99
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Pregnancy is often accompanied by morning sickness - is there any evolutionary reasoning or is it just a physical reaction to being pregnant?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 02:28 PM PST

With enough time, is every species capable of evolving to be on par with human intelligence?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 09:40 AM PST

I may be wording my question poorly but I want to know if it's possible for other species to reach the level of humans with enough time via evolution. Intelligence might not be the right word but could we have other species reaching the same level of control over their environment? Would this be exclusive to primates or would it be possible for other animals as well?

submitted by /u/ReddiRalph
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Why was there barely any volcamism on the far side of the moon?

Posted: 08 Jan 2019 12:55 AM PST

Now Chang'e 4 (with rover Yutu 2) have landed there is one big question to be resolved by scientists: Why there are so many maria (lunar mare) on the near side - those large black patches of basaltic rock which have been spit out by volcanoes billions of years ago? And why there are virtually none on the far side?

This article (in German, translation below) adresses this question, ruling out one explanation. It is not the thickness of the lunar crust:

Translation via Deepl:

Geologists hope that the mission on the back of the moon will enable them to solve previously unsolved mysteries about the development of the Earth's satellite: The researchers would like to understand why the volcanic processes on the front and back side were so different - and why the Mare are not equally widespread everywhere. For a long time they believed that this could be due to the fact that the crust on the lunar front is thinner and volcanic melts could therefore rise more easily in the first millions of years of lunar history. NASA's Grail mission, however, determined the lunar gravity field until the end of 2012 and could not detect any noticeably increased crust thickness on the side remote from the Earth (source: Wieczorek et al 2013). Why are there hardly any volcanic mare? - That's a big question," says Harald Hiesinger, planetary geologist and moon expert at the University of Münster.

Original:

Durch die Mission die Mondrückseite erhoffen sich Geologen, bislang ungelöste Rätsel der Entwicklung des Erdtrabanten klären zu können: Die Forscher würden gerne verstehen, warum die vulkanischen Prozesse auf Vorder-​ und Rückseite so unterschiedlich waren – und die Mare nicht überall gleich verbreitet sind. Lange Zeit glaubten sie, dies könnte daran liegen, dass die Kruste auf der Mondvorderseite dünner ist und vulkanische Schmelzen in den ersten Jahrmillionen der lunaren Geschichte somit leichter aufsteigen konnten. Die NASA-​Mission Grail bestimmte bis Ende 2012 allerdings das lunare Schwerefeld und konnte keine auffällig erhöhte Krustendicke auf der erdabgewandten Seite feststellen (Quelle: Wieczorek et al 2013). Warum gibt es dort dennoch kaum vulkanische Mare? - „Das ist eine große Frage", sagt Harald Hiesinger, Planetengeologe und Mondexperte an der Universität Münster.

submitted by /u/pikarl
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Why does gravitational time dilation exist around a black hole when it did not previously exist around the star it once was? (2 part question)

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 02:40 PM PST

Second question is if black holes exert no more gravity than it once did as a star, then why is gravity so strong that even light can't escape? It just seems contradictory, but I'm no physicist (obviously).

submitted by /u/WolfByTheEars07
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Do whales and other cetaceans sweat, or even have sweat glands?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 09:20 AM PST

I am wondering.

submitted by /u/ppvvaa
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Monday, January 7, 2019

How do the Chinese send signals back to earth from the dark side of the moon if it is tidally locked?

How do the Chinese send signals back to earth from the dark side of the moon if it is tidally locked?


How do the Chinese send signals back to earth from the dark side of the moon if it is tidally locked?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 08:46 AM PST

Why are almost all of Earth's time units multiples of 6?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 05:43 AM PST

Is it coincidence or scientific or just a completely invented concept by humans?

submitted by /u/pancakeghost12
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Given an equivalent surface area to compare, are meteorite impacts more likely to happen around the equator, or at the poles?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 08:12 AM PST

I was recently thinking about the likelihood of a meteorite impact where I live. Then, it got me thinking: on a geological time scale, are these impacts more likely to happen at the equator (given most of the stuff in our local region is orbiting the sun around the same plane that the earth and its equator is), or at the poles?

I realize that the effect of precession and the tilt of the poles into and out of the vector of the Earth as it travels around the sun does increase the chances of seasonal meteor showers in certain parts of the world. Also, I'm aware that the time of day also changes the likelihood of meteorite impacts, again because of the Earth's direction of travel around the sun in the early morning.

However, I now wonder if it is more likely for a massive, life-ending impact to occur around the equator than, say, at the North Pole.

Anyone have any insights? I already looked for this question on Google, and I only got some parts of the answer.

submitted by /u/occipixel_lobe
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Why is average income calculated as GDP ÷ Population and not GDP ÷ Working Population?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 09:14 AM PST

Since we want to find the average income of the average worker, then why is average income calculated as GDP ÷ Population and not GDP ÷ Working Population?

submitted by /u/UniversallyUniqueID
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Why are the solar panels on ISS different from the ones usually seen here on earth?

Posted: 07 Jan 2019 04:44 AM PST

Does squid ink share any similarities to “real world” ink we use in our pens and printers? Or is it just a colloquialism?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 07:49 PM PST

What determines whether something will burn or melt?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 05:25 PM PST

Why is my current cold "a cold in the nose", whilst others are "in the head/chest/throat"? Is the infection localised there, or is it that different cold viruses exhibit different symptoms?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 09:40 AM PST

Hipparchus is credited with discovering the precession of the equinoxes; but how can you measure such a slow process, especially in ancient Greece?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 03:11 PM PST

Why are albino rats used in scientific research?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 02:52 PM PST

I was reading into the Rat Utopia studies and it mentioned that albino rats were used in most of the studies, which got me wondering:Why are albino rats used in scientific research?

What are the benefits and drawbacks?

Are albino rats the most common rat used in research and if so why?

submitted by /u/SReject
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What specifically about cigarettes raises hematocrit levels?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 06:34 PM PST

Is it the nicotine they contain or is it something else, or a combination of these answers?

Essentially, would vaping or using nicotine patches/gum/other nicotine-delivering smoking cessation aids effect (raise or sustain at higher than ideal levels) someone's hematocrit/hemoglobin levels in the same manner as smoking tobacco?

submitted by /u/cartooneye
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How are the repeated segments in a centipede developed?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 12:46 PM PST

What is a Lagrange point? What happens there?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 01:06 PM PST

how do different parts of the crystal know to stop growing at the right point to give it a "regular" shape?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 12:00 PM PST

My understanding is that when a cubic crystal shape forms, that usually (always?) means that the underlying molecular structure is a cubic crystal lattice (or, at least, cuboidal), where the structure can be created by placing atoms in some pattern inside a cuboid and then repeating that cuboid in all three dimensions.

But I never understood what forces would cause a crystal to grow in a shape that mimics the building block of the lattice. In other words, suppose atom X is somewhere on the face of one of the crystals. The crystal stopped growing (in the direction orthogonal to the face of the crystal) exactly at atom X. 5,000 molecules down from atom X is atom Y, and the crystal also stopped growing in that direction at atom Y. What forces would cause the growth to be "coordinated" in a way that it stopped growing in that direction at both atom X and Y and all of the atoms in between? (And similarly for all the atoms on the edge between two faces of the crystal, where the crystal stopped growing in *two* directions at all of those points?)

submitted by /u/bennetthaselton
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Is a figure 8 solar system possible?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 09:18 AM PST

I was wondering if it is possible for a solar system to exist where there are two suns that are essentially identical and a decent distance from each other so that the planet(s) are able to pass between them at one point in their orbit. Creating a system where the planet(s) are revolving around one star, get caught in the middle, and then latch onto the other star and start revolving around that one, starting the cycle over again.

submitted by /u/candle_burner
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Is there any way to effectively convert brain waves into energy?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 01:25 PM PST

I've seen several articles in my few minutes of research over this that show people using their brains to power a small light bulb.

I also read an excerpt from MIT that claims that brain waves are about a billionth of the strength of the Earth's magnetic field.

submitted by /u/officialbryson
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What makes/ how does the earth spin?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 08:51 PM PST

Like what makes it spin, I know it revolves around the sun because of gravity (I could be wrong if so correct me) but what makes it spin!

submitted by /u/wagagaw
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Is there a genetic link between cleft palate and torus palatinus?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 09:19 AM PST

I (28F) have a torus palatinus on the roof of my mouth, which is just a harmless bony growth that sticks out. My brother (27M) was born with a cleft of the soft palate. So basically, I was born with an excess of bone and he didn't have enough. I'm wondering if there is a reason we would both have palate abnormalities, since there is no other family history of it, and I haven't been able to find an answer through my own research.

submitted by /u/maineiacmama
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Why is it apparently impossible to create a velocity profile for fluids with turbulent flow, but not laminar?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 12:16 PM PST

Why do Jupiter's moons never colide?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 07:44 AM PST

I mean, shouldn't the gravitational force between each other be enough to attract themselves when they pass by?

submitted by /u/scrytor
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We always hear about possible large meteors hitting the earth, but what about the moon?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 10:04 AM PST

Would there be effects to us from debris if it was a big enough meteor? How likely is it we'd see a meteor strike on the moon?

submitted by /u/Vectorman1989
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Why weren't dinosaurs discovered till the mid 1800's? With civilizations being around for 5,000 years you would think that they would have been discovered earlier.

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 07:49 AM PST

Is there a general rule or way to determine whether a compound is soluble or less soluble?

Posted: 06 Jan 2019 01:35 PM PST

Hello,

Like the title says, is there any way to determine just by looking at the formula how soluble a compound is? Thanks.

submitted by /u/ComradeFlorr
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