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Thursday, May 26, 2016

A month ago we made available publicly via the CERN Open Data Portal 300 TB of research data from the CMS Experiment at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider. AUA about our open data!

A month ago we made available publicly via the CERN Open Data Portal 300 TB of research data from the CMS Experiment at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider. AUA about our open data!


A month ago we made available publicly via the CERN Open Data Portal 300 TB of research data from the CMS Experiment at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider. AUA about our open data!

Posted: 26 May 2016 05:00 AM PDT

Hi /r/AskScience!

As the title of the /r/technology post said, we dropped 300 Terabytes of LHC data to the internet a month ago via the CERN Open Data Portal. The data, from the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) Experiment, are now in the public domain under the CC0 waiver. The datasets include over 100 TB of data from proton collisions at 7 TeV, making up half the data collected by the CMS detector in 2011. The data are provided in the format that is used by CMS scientists for performing physics analyses. We have also provided 200 TB of simulated data (Monte Carlo) generated with the same software version that should be used to analyse the primary datasets. Read more about the data release.

A year and a half ago, when we first launched the CERN Open Data Portal, we conducted an AMA about the first release of open data on the portal and about open science in general. Today, we want to talk to you not just about our motivations for making such large datasets available openly and the challenges involved in doing so, but also about how our data are being used for research as well as in education. We are:

  • From CERN Information Technology:
    • Tibor Simko (ts), Technology Lead for the Open Data Portal
  • From CERN Scientific Information Service:
    • Anxhela Dani (ad), Data librarian
  • From the CMS Experiment:
    • Kati Lassila-Perini (klp), Physicist and Co-ordinator of the CMS Data Preservation and Open Data project, Helsinki Institute of Physics
    • Tom McCauley (tpm), Physicist and Developer of CMS education/outreach tools, University of Notre Dame

We'll sign our posts with our initials (see above) so you know who said what. Just to be clear, we are speaking with you in our personal capacities and neither CERN nor our home institutes necessarily support the views expressed during the AMA. We are also joined by:

  • Achintya Rao (/u/RaoOfPhysics), CMS science communicator and Science Communication doctoral student

We'll answer your questions from 16:00 CEST until around 18:00 CEST (UTC+02).

Proof!

About the CERN Open Data Portal

The CERN Open Data portal is the access point to a growing range of data produced through the research performed at CERN. It disseminates the preserved output from various research activities, including accompanying software and documentation that is needed to understand and analyse the data being shared.

The portal adheres to established global standards in data preservation and Open Science: the products are shared under open licences; they are issued with a digital object identifier (DOI) to make them citable objects in the scientific discourse.

About CERN

CERN is the European Laboratory for Particle Physics, located in Geneva, Switzerland. Its flagship accelerator is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which has four main particle detectors: ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb.

For updates, news and more, head over to our unofficial home on reddit: /r/CERN!

CERN projects you can join

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How has life affected what the Earth looks like?

Posted: 25 May 2016 03:13 PM PDT

How has biological life affected what the Earth looks like?


If that's too broad a question I've got some specific ones below, and I'd love answers to any of them. Thanks for any interest in answering.

  • Is there more land because plant life prevents a lot of erosion from wind and rain?
  • Is there more soil and less gravel and sand?
  • Are there more beaches because of life?

  • How has the composition of the atmosphere and seas changed?
  • Are the colours different?
  • Obviously we have an oxygenated atmosphere now.
  • Without life would the weather be more or less extreme?
  • Would sea levels have changed?

  • Has life 'guarded' against any catastrophic run-away environmental processes, perhaps irreversibly transforming Earth to be more like Venus or Mars?

  • Is this a question useful for investigating potential planets suitable for extraterrestrial life?

Thanks again!

submitted by /u/aSemy
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Do objects orbiting close to black holes ever get flung out into space at near light speed?

Posted: 25 May 2016 01:35 PM PDT

If possible, could earth be pulverized at any time without warning by an asteroid flying through the solar system at .99c?

submitted by /u/turdferg123
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When talking to someone through two cups attached by a string, why do you hear their voice louder than just talking through air at the same distance?

Posted: 25 May 2016 10:52 PM PDT

Any formulas to help explain this would be awesome!

submitted by /u/BeastftMiddleEast
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How do computers/digitizer watches know how long a second is?

Posted: 26 May 2016 01:03 AM PDT

I assume computers/digital watches/stopwatches calculate time by "knowing" that there's 24 hrs in a day, 60 minutes to an hour, 60 seconds in a minute. If that's correct, how do those devices know how long a second is?

Edit: on mobile, can't fix autocorrect in title, meant to say digital watch not digitizer

submitted by /u/sir_wigalot
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Does the size of a ferromagnetic metal related to its magnetic strength?

Posted: 25 May 2016 08:26 PM PDT

If not, what factors explain magnetic strength? Also, are there any ferromagnetic elements that are magnetised by default (as in without requiring an applied voltage to make permanent) ?

submitted by /u/qwerty_face
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Can spacetime wrap in such a way that the universe would be finite with no border ?

Posted: 25 May 2016 11:54 AM PDT

Maybe something like a 4 dimensional sphere ?

submitted by /u/kugelbl1z
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What influences the size/morphology of magnetic domains and their boundaries in ferro/ferrimagnetic materials?

Posted: 25 May 2016 03:49 PM PDT

It is known that multiple magnetic domains can exist in a single crystalline grain of metal. In other words, if there exists a polycrystalline material with n grains, there can be >n magnetic domains, since each grain can have multiple magnetic domains.

What factors influence the creation of magnetic domains and their boundaries?

submitted by /u/DrIblis
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Does El Niño/La Niña impact the ITCZ?

Posted: 26 May 2016 06:22 AM PDT

I have a basic understanding of the role the ITCZ plays in the monsoon cycle, but I'm curious if a strong ENSO changes the behavior of the ITCZ - thus impacting monsoons.

submitted by /u/Dav1d0v
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Why can't alpha particles cause nuclear reactions like neutrons? Is it their size or the electrostatic interactions?

Posted: 26 May 2016 05:15 AM PDT

If an astronomical object was orbiting a brown dwarf, would it be classified as a planet, a moon or something else?

Posted: 25 May 2016 07:11 PM PDT

Title pretty much says it all, except I also wonder if this could even happen, as it seems like all brown dwarfs are rouge? (I could be mistaken.)

Thanks in advance!

submitted by /u/WaffleSingSong
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Why do most installers and software refer to 32 bit as "x86", yet 64 bit is still just "x64"?

Posted: 25 May 2016 04:51 PM PDT

Is there anything interesting about adding a "small cardinal axiom?"

Posted: 25 May 2016 06:36 PM PDT

I'm really not sure how to properly articulate this idea or if it is even meaningful, but ... we use the axiom of infinity to guarantee the existence of an infinite set with cardinality aleph-null, and we can use the power set operation to construct aleph cardinals greater than aleph-null. We can also add large cardinal axioms and reason about cardinalities strictly greater than all aleph cardinals, and that gets quite interesting mathematically.

What if we added something like a "small cardinal axiom" to axiomatically state the existence of a set where, say ... the cardinality of the power set of this set is aleph-null, so it must therefore have a transfinite cardinality that is strictly lesser than aleph null.

Or perhaps something more along the lines of constructing fractional or even infinitesimal cardinalities, axiomatically stating the existence of a set with cardinality strictly greater than zero and strictly lesser than one. Or even with a negative cardinality?

Is anything like these ideas possible without creating an inconsistent axiomatic system? If so, is there anything particularly interesting about such systems?

Thanks in advance for entertaining the idea!

submitted by /u/hikaruzero
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Do plastics ever become pourable with enough heat?

Posted: 25 May 2016 08:21 PM PDT

From what I can find, plastics such as HDPE require not only heat but pressure to take the form of a mould. Do heated plastics never reduce in viscosity to the point of becoming pourable?

submitted by /u/spaaaceotter
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Are there precious metals humanity relies on that we are in danger of running out of?

Posted: 25 May 2016 06:32 PM PDT

What's the difference between the different lobes of the brain?

Posted: 25 May 2016 10:31 PM PDT

I don't mean functionally, but physically, what at the fundamental level defines which part of the brain does what, isn't it all just a big mesh of neurons? How does the brain know that these neurons control movement and these my heart rate, and these vision? Is it just dependant on what they're connected to (like my heart or my eyes) but fundamentally they're identical?

submitted by /u/palalapa
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Does fracking definitively cause earthquakes?

Posted: 25 May 2016 02:51 PM PDT

There has been a few documentaries and some severely contested studies but nothing I can find gives a clear answer.

submitted by /u/krillskrills
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology

Posted: 25 May 2016 08:05 AM PDT

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.

The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.

Ask away!

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Is it possible to control which direction heat flows on the atomic of molecular levels?

Posted: 25 May 2016 11:54 AM PDT

Is there a material that can transfer heat in desired directions rather than just march towards equalizing temperatures between two objects? I don't have a background in physics or chemistry, I just had a curious thought after thinking about how well my Yeti cup keeps things cold. I'd love to learn more about our understanding of heat flow, and any cool efforts ongoing on the subject.

submitted by /u/How_Many_More_Times
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What is this 4,61 km big thing moving over the ocean floor and leaving a visible trail?

Posted: 25 May 2016 05:27 AM PDT

https://youtu.be/4hQ-rtEEAH4?t=3m16s

I stumbled over this video, and I would really like some awnsers other than "aliens". This looks really intriguing and I wonder why i never heard of this before. I posted it to /r/whatisthisthing but videos are not allowed there.

There must be a normal explanation for this, right?

submitted by /u/Nudelwalker
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Are watermelons, melons and cantaloupes related to pumpkins ?

Posted: 25 May 2016 06:10 AM PDT

Wednesday, May 25, 2016

AskScience AMA Series: I’m Sean Carroll, physicist and author of best-selling book THE BIG PICTURE. Ask Me Anything about the universe and what it means!

AskScience AMA Series: I’m Sean Carroll, physicist and author of best-selling book THE BIG PICTURE. Ask Me Anything about the universe and what it means!


AskScience AMA Series: I’m Sean Carroll, physicist and author of best-selling book THE BIG PICTURE. Ask Me Anything about the universe and what it means!

Posted: 25 May 2016 05:00 AM PDT

I'm a theoretical physicist at the California Institute of Technology, and the author of several books. My research covers fundamental physics and cosmology, including quantum gravity, dark energy, and the arrow of time. I've been a science consultant for a number of movies and TV shows. My new book, THE BIG PICTURE, discusses how different ways we have of talking about the universe all fit together, from particle physics to biology to consciousness and human life. Ask Me Anything!


AskScience AMAs are posted early to give readers a chance to ask questions and vote on the questions of others before the AMA starts. Sean Carroll will begin answering questions around 11 AM PT/2 PM ET.

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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If I heat up an iron rod to the point where its glowing, is the iron rod emitting photons or is it just reflecting a higher amount of photons that it normally does at room temperature?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:27 PM PDT

What makes a stealth plane 'stealth'? What is the technology involved and why can these planes be invisible to radars etc?

Posted: 24 May 2016 05:04 PM PDT

What makes Damascus steel so special?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:11 PM PDT

I'm not talking about the modern pattern I mean the stuff ancient steel swords were made of that we can't replicate

submitted by /u/AC13verName
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When was it first known and/or confirmed that Mars was another planet and not a star?

Posted: 24 May 2016 06:13 PM PDT

In everything I've read trying to answer this question, Mars is referred to as either a heavenly body or a planet. When did Mars go from being a bright spot in the sky to being recognized as another place like Earth?

If there's a big dumb obvious answer for this that I'm missing, the same question would apply to Venus.

submitted by /u/DoctorBlasphemy
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Why do humans wear clothes and when did we began?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:58 PM PDT

Do humans wear clothes because we lost our fur or did we lose fur because we began wearing clothes.

submitted by /u/JustStudyItOut
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How can an emotion -such as stress- affect the physical body?

Posted: 24 May 2016 05:49 PM PDT

According to this article here , stress can damage DNA. How is this? Isn't stress just an emotion that is purely in the brain and not quantifiable?

submitted by /u/GassyWizard
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What is the structure of the Australopithecus Afarensis hand?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:29 PM PDT

Can someone please explain the structure of the hand, and how it worked and its different types of grips.

submitted by /u/Cadd0c
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Does any thing ever appear to exceed the speed of light?

Posted: 24 May 2016 01:14 PM PDT

I'm currently reading Hawking's famous book, A Brief History of Time. Two related questions have popped into my head:

Firstly: From the point of view of a photon, or anything else, does any object, particle or wave - any thing - ever appear to exceed the speed of light?

If not, would the answer be "yes" if, by magic, we could see beyond the "curtain" the limits of the observable universe impose upon us? For example, in an expanding universe, would some distant galaxy appear to be, or actually be, moving away from us faster than light, if we could see to the edge of the universe? Or, perhaps, would we see particles flung outward by the Big Bang in the early nanoseconds of the Universe moving faster than light, if our telescopes could probe such impossible depths of space (and time?)

Secondly: It is my understanding that, due to small fluctuations on the quantum scale, things that would be impossible on the macro scale do happen on the quantum scale. Is it possible, then, that a photon ever actually - not appears to - moves just slightly faster than the speed of light, even for an unimaginably brief period of time?

*For this second question, let's forget about any magic I referred to in the first, such as being able to see straight to the edge of the universe.

submitted by /u/8Milesofshade
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Do objects in space cast shadows on the aurora?

Posted: 24 May 2016 05:50 PM PDT

Would an object like a satellite passing above an aurora interrupt the solar wind?

submitted by /u/OneDayBeRelevant
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What observational evidence is there for calling electron positions "shells"?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:05 PM PDT

I know the old Bohr model had them as orbits/rings/etc. And now we think of them as shells of statistical probability. But when we say "higher" does that just mean energy, or does the shell actually take up space further away from the nucleus? If so, can we observe that?

submitted by /u/newdefinition
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How do objects leaving Earth overcome their rotational momentum due to the Earth's rotation?

Posted: 24 May 2016 07:47 PM PDT

I couldn't find the answer on google because I can't really phrase my question right. This started with me thinking about what if the Earth stopped rotating? Everything would be thrown in a certain direction due to the momentum from the rotating Earth...

But what about rockets for example? While they are within the atmosphere, they should still be rotating along with the Earth, but once they leave the atmosphere I imagine they shouldn't be affected so much by the Earth- but still retain some momentum?

Maybe they lose their rotational momentum slowly and have negligible rotational momentum by the time they leave the atmosphere, or is it some other reason?

Thanks for reading!

submitted by /u/ROD_OF_AGES
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[Mathematics] How can we know the last digits of Grahams Number, but not the first digits?

Posted: 24 May 2016 07:55 AM PDT

How can we know the last digits at all?

submitted by /u/iKarmaLoL
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Are there any species of octopi that rear their young like mammals and birds do?

Posted: 24 May 2016 03:24 PM PDT

How did civilizations that don't share a common language start to communicate?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:29 PM PDT

Also how would we communicate with aliens? I assume in a similar way. Assuming they communicate through sound and not some other method.

submitted by /u/XGX787
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What is the best way to reduce the weight of a metal beam while maintaining its structural integrity?

Posted: 24 May 2016 03:48 PM PDT

Me and my friend are trying to reduce the weight of a metal arm in order to decrease the moment of inertia. Our plan is to drill holes in it, and we were wondering what the most efficient way to do that is. A few large holes, lots of small hole, a combination of the two?

submitted by /u/KevinDaellenbach
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If it is recommended to pasteurize fresh squeezed juice, why can I eat the fruit as-is without the same concern for bacteria?

Posted: 24 May 2016 11:04 AM PDT

How is it possible to convert weight into mass?

Posted: 24 May 2016 09:39 PM PDT

From what I understand mass and weight are two completely different measurements, however according to google 1 pound = 453.592 grams.

submitted by /u/nullmother
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Is GP120 found anywhere besides the exterior of an HIV molecule? If yes, where? If no, what traits of the HIV molecule prevent the development of an effective GP120 inhibitor?

Posted: 24 May 2016 03:36 PM PDT

What happens to the growth process of a plant when there are multiple equal light sources?

Posted: 24 May 2016 01:09 PM PDT

Like, plants always grow towards the sun but what direction do they grow in when there are 2 or more light sources on other sides of the plant?

submitted by /u/1auren7
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In reproductive cloning, does Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer require that the surrogate be different than the somatic cell donor and the oocyte donor to produce a "healthy" clone?

Posted: 24 May 2016 12:02 PM PDT

Edit: I'm wondering what is the minimal number of animals of the same species you need to clone for viable offspring. Could you take an egg and somatic cell from a female and use it as its own surrogate?

submitted by /u/hburggraf
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Why do voltage/current spikes occur when connecting or disconnecting an electrical connection?

Posted: 24 May 2016 01:49 PM PDT

Tuesday, May 24, 2016

American Chemical Society AMA: I am Gerry Wright, Director of the Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research at McMaster University and Associate Editor of ACS Infectious Diseases. Ask me anything about antibiotic resistance and antibiotic discovery.

American Chemical Society AMA: I am Gerry Wright, Director of the Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research at McMaster University and Associate Editor of ACS Infectious Diseases. Ask me anything about antibiotic resistance and antibiotic discovery.


American Chemical Society AMA: I am Gerry Wright, Director of the Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research at McMaster University and Associate Editor of ACS Infectious Diseases. Ask me anything about antibiotic resistance and antibiotic discovery.

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:46 AM PDT

Hi Reddit! I am a Professor of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences at McMaster Univeristy and Director of the Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research (http://mcmasteriidr.ca/). I have been working on antibiotic resistance and discovery for over 25 years. My lab uses a combination of chemistry, microbiology, biochemistry and genomics to understand how antibiotics work, along with exploring mechanisms and evolution of resistance. We use this information to learn how to find new antibiotics and alternatives to antibiotics.

I am also an Associate Editor of the journal ACS Infectious Diseases (http://pubs.acs.org/page/aidcbc/editors.html), a publication that highlights how chemistry sheds light on and helps in the fight against pathogens.

I am happy to answer any questions you may have on antibiotic resistance and discovery.

I will be back at 1 pm ET, ask anything.

submitted by /u/AmerChemSocietyAMA
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Why did heavy-lift launch vehicles use spherical fuel tanks instead of cylindrical ones?

Posted: 23 May 2016 09:32 AM PDT

If you look at the cutaways of the Saturn V and N-1 in this webpage you can see that the fuel tanks taper away from the inner sides of the spaceship due to their spherical nature. Why didn't they use the full space available to them?

submitted by /u/8BandComp
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Can space-time warp in such a way as to allow me to start a journey and then return as my mirror image?

Posted: 24 May 2016 02:29 AM PDT

How do we find out if electrons are not elementary?

Posted: 23 May 2016 10:35 AM PDT

What experiments can or have been done to confirm this being true or false?

submitted by /u/blueredscreen
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Is there a continuous version of product, like integrals for sums?

Posted: 23 May 2016 11:36 AM PDT

Are there weird Karman Lines on other planets?

Posted: 23 May 2016 10:27 AM PDT

The Karman Line is about 100km on Earth, and that's where in order for an aircraft to generate lift against the atmosphere you need to be travelling faster than what it takes to maintain stable orbit.

I'm having a hard time turning this over in my head for places like Jupiter, Venus and Titan.

submitted by /u/accidentallybrill
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Are the three spatial dimensions actually one dimension, represented by three vectors? Are the three dimensions actually "separate"?

Posted: 23 May 2016 10:07 AM PDT

While we represent position in three dimensional space using three coordinates, it occurred to me that the universe may not have a discrete x, y, and z axis. If these dimensions can be mixed in to each other depending on your reference frame, are they really a separate phenomenon?

submitted by /u/light24bulbs
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How does citric acid stop oxidation?

Posted: 24 May 2016 03:12 AM PDT

Why are images of the same width and height so different in file size?

Posted: 24 May 2016 04:08 AM PDT

Whenever I create some image in Photoshop and save it (lets say 1920x1080px) it's like 1MB file size. When I blur the entire image it's suddenly only 100KB.

Why is there a difference in file size, doesn't the image have to 'remember' which color what pixel is, regardless of how sharp/blurred or clean/messy an image is? It still has the same amount of pixels.

submitted by /u/Conjomb
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What are nano-photovoltaic cells?

Posted: 24 May 2016 03:12 AM PDT

I am studying a little about research ongoing in Solar energy. It seems that research in nano-PV has increased over the time.

Please shed some lights on efficiency too, how are they doing against our current PV technology? better or worse? As I am no expert in this domain please throw away any information you have. I would really appreciate it.

submitted by /u/siez_
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Is there a complete topographic dataset of Earth?

Posted: 24 May 2016 02:53 AM PDT

As the title says, I am searching for complete topographic data of the entire planet. SRTM is the closest I could find so far, but it covers only about 80% of the area of the planet. Is there a way to get more of the data?

submitted by /u/notsofunnynowehh
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How does a planet's orbit change as one of the suns in a binary-sun solar system starts do 'die'?

Posted: 24 May 2016 02:51 AM PDT

Given a solar system with a binary sun, where one of the suns is noticeably smaller than the other; given that such a system has only one planet with its companion moon.

The smaller sun starts to die. Will the orbit of the lone planet expand or contract? Will that planet's year get longer or shorter as the sun dies off?

Thanks!

submitted by /u/DrVialgo
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So when two black holes collide they form a bigger one, but what if a black hole were to collide with a white hole?

Posted: 24 May 2016 03:24 AM PDT

also what if this black hole is connected to that specific 'white hole'

submitted by /u/AgilityBobblehead
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Are the number of electrons equal to the number of protons in the universe?

Posted: 23 May 2016 09:22 PM PDT

Why are 5 independent slip systems needed for arbitrary deformation?

Posted: 23 May 2016 09:52 AM PDT

So the Von Mises Criterion says we need 5 active slip systems, but why are 3 not enough for a 3 dimensional object??

submitted by /u/MmmmmmmmDonuts
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What really causes Hematite stones to crack or break?

Posted: 23 May 2016 06:30 PM PDT

When Googling the question, all that comes up is the new age answer, "that it absorbs negativity."

What really causes hematite to break after sitting around for a few years?

submitted by /u/geotagger
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Are there any math problems that even a computer could not solve?

Posted: 23 May 2016 03:10 PM PDT

Edit: To those wondering what I mean by "math problem," I simply mean any problem that involves math, or basic logic. Does that makes sense?

submitted by /u/rsmtirish
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Can sound frequencies break anything?

Posted: 23 May 2016 08:46 AM PDT

So when someone sings loud enough to break glass they're matching the frequency of the glass. And if everything in life has a frequency does that mean that if the specific frequency of any substance is matched it will break?

submitted by /u/relljr
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Why is such a large portion of our star systems mass concentrated at the Sun?

Posted: 23 May 2016 09:15 AM PDT

The Sun contains about 99.9% of all the mass in our star system, but in some other star systems the mass is spread enough to form orbiting brown dwarfs, binary stars and what not. What is it in a star systems formation that causes them to have such huge differences between each other on mass distribution?

submitted by /u/empire314
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Are there any pathogenic (to humans) archaea?

Posted: 23 May 2016 07:44 AM PDT