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Thursday, October 10, 2019

We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our annual meeting in Brisbane, Australia. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything!

We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our annual meeting in Brisbane, Australia. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything!


We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our annual meeting in Brisbane, Australia. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything!

Posted: 10 Oct 2019 04:51 AM PDT

Hello AskScience! We are members of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. We study fossil fish, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles — anything with a backbone! Our research includes how these organisms lived, how they were affected by environmental change like a changing climate, how they're related, and much more. You can learn more about SVP in this video or follow us on Twitter @SVP_vertpaleo.

Joining us today are:

  • Stephanie Drumheller, Ph.D. is a paleontologist at the University of Tennessee whose research focuses on the processes of fossilization, evolution, and biology, of crocodiles and their relatives, including identifying bite marks on fossils. Find her on Twitter @UglyFossils.

  • Larisa DeSantis, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor in Biological Sciences and Earth and Environmental Sciences at Vanderbilt University. Her research focuses on the paleoecology and paleobiology of mammals in North America and Australia.

  • Dana Ehret, Ph.D. is the Assistant Curator of Natural History at the New Jersey State Museum. He studies fossil fish and reptiles, and also has an interest in the pop culture and history of cryptids. Find him on Twitter @DrDanaEhret.

  • Jess Miller-Camp, Ph.D. is the Paleontology and Zooarchaeology Collections Manager at the University of Indiana, Bloomington. Jess studies alligatorine systematics, biogeography, ecomorphology, and diversity dynamics as well as dicynodont morphology and extinction survival. Find her on Twitter @DeadGators.

  • Kenny Travouillon, Ph.D. is the Curator of Mammals at the Western Australian Museum. His expertise is in mammalian ecology and paleontology in Australia, with a focus on bandicoots.

We are coming to you from Brisbane, Australia, so we will be back later this evening (Eastern Time) to answer your questions. Thanks for your patience, and see you soon!

submitted by /u/VertPaleoAMA
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Why is it best to keep lithium ion batteries charged between 30 and 80 percent?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 09:06 PM PDT

From my understanding, lithium ion batteries gradually "age" because whenever the battery is recharged, some of the cathode and anode material builds up on the opposite terminal, lowering the battery's capacity.

If this is so, how does keeping the battery in this middle range improve battery life and performance?

submitted by /u/spool_pin
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How do birds with sexual dimorphism know their supposed sexual partners?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 11:10 PM PDT

Take a hen and a rooster as an example. They are unquestionably distinct in their appearance. What's going on in their head that results in "oh, that's the male I'm supposed to make kids"? Obviously, there's no reference book for young hens depicting what their to-be partners should look like to have chicks. Despite that, I haven't seen geese mating ducks. And there are Eclectus parrots, which have entirely different males and females. How come they do not confuse their potential mates with, I don't know, macaws or cockatoos?

submitted by /u/urutseg
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So if gas can turn back into a liquid, why do we not convert gas waste into liquid form instead of letting it go into the atmosphere again?

Posted: 10 Oct 2019 04:16 AM PDT

I was also thinking... if gas can be converted into liquid, why not turn the gas that car uses back into liquid form for the cars to use it again? What elements would we be lost in the conversion to gas from the original gasoline?

submitted by /u/DemDems44
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Why do muscles twitch?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 09:52 PM PDT

I know what can cause it including stress or diet, but what really causes the muscle twitch? Like, I'm thinking our bodies have an "energy short" in that area. Some sort of glitch in a complex robot.

submitted by /u/NeedSomeMemeCream
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Can “Clostridium tetani” (bacteria that creates tetanus infection) transfer to clothing or bed sheets and survive there?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 11:29 PM PDT

I'm having a paranoid week after reading too many Reddit comments about health precautions, which can drive one temporarily mad.

Basically, I had my laundered bed sheets hanging on a line over a shelf.

Said bed sheets MAY have been hanging low enough to touch a coat hanger that was on the shelf. Upon inspection, the hanger has a bit of rust on it.

If I put those sheets on my bed once they're dry, is there ANY chance the potential bacteria from the hanger — namely, Clostridium tetani (sometimes found around rust) — will transfer to the sheets and survive there and harm me or others?

Edit: I simply can't remember when I last received my tetanus shot. Probably childhood. I don't know

Edit 2: I'm working from what Google told me, which is that this bacteria does live in soil and other specific spots BUT also can live basically "anywhere." If it were on my sheets, and I involuntarily inhaled or swallowed it, then wouldn't I be putting myself at risk?

submitted by /u/posting_in_SNLthread
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How can I increase water to create an alkaline water with a min Ph of 11.5?

Posted: 10 Oct 2019 05:29 AM PDT

Hi,

I would like to know options to create alkaline water with a Ph of 11.5+ through food-grade chemicals. I know I can do it through reverse osmosis like Kangen machines ect but I am looking for a simple cheap solution to test the solubility of an ingredient I am working with.

Interested in any solutions but must be food grade compliant

Thanks

submitted by /u/pivotaldrinks
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Is this analogy accurate?

Posted: 10 Oct 2019 05:24 AM PDT

"These substances [aluminum and formaldehyde] are harmless in the context of the vaccine, in much the same way that table salt is completely harmless, even though it's two components, sodium and chloride, can be dangerous to humans on their own. "

EDIT: thank you all for your contributions! I removed the analogy, and replaced it with "the dose makes the poison".

submitted by /u/sunflow3hrs
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What makes a peptide chain hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 11:58 PM PDT

For example, in the chain Cystein-Alanin-Valin-Cystein-Leucin-Alanin, it apparently counts as hydrophobic, and only cystein is polar, hydrophilic, but that is still 33% that is hydrophilic

submitted by /u/Helgrinds
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Earth has been through several mass extinction events. How quickly did these occur? Did most life die out in months and years or centuries, etc?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 02:26 PM PDT

If lighting strikes are around 50000 F (27760 C), how do people survive them?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 10:06 PM PDT

How does electricity flow through water?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 12:01 PM PDT

Let's say you have a power line hanging into the water. How is volume going to affect how the electricity travels? And as an alternative question if you were swimming under water would the electricity flow across the top, or through the whole pool?

submitted by /u/snarledmist
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Why can't I power an electric scooter from a phone battery pack?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 08:54 PM PDT

My friend recently got an escooter, and it only has a 6,000 mAh battery. My phone battery pack has a capacity of 10,000 mAh (and an output of 3.8V). I'm fairly sure that he can't just swap out my battery for his and drive twice as long, but I don't understand ohm's law well enough to know why.

submitted by /u/corvidsarecrows
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Is the Columbia River Gorge a Fjord?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 01:36 PM PDT

The Gorge is on the border between Washington and Oregon, USA and is very similar in appearance to some fjords.

submitted by /u/RisingWaterline
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How can we tell black holes are all the same type of object?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 06:47 AM PDT

So if a black hole is anything dense and massive enough to cause escape velocity to exceed the speed of light, thus trapping light, does that mean that actually black holes, as opposed to being a specific single phenomena could actually be several different types of supermassive objects that just happen to look the same because light can't escape from them?

like i'd always thought of a black hole as something that's literally eating matter, but really that's just a product of it's massive nature.

i guess my point is, if by their nature we can't see them how can we actually say they're a singularity and not something else that just happens to be incredibly dense and massive?

for instance as a specific example, supermassive black holes appear to be fairly different to other black holes, even if it's just due to their mass.

summarised:

why is it assumed that these objects are the same based on appearance, when in the case of black holes, the appearance is just a function of their mass?

submitted by /u/Avnas
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Is it true that heating up honey turns it toxic? If so why?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 06:36 PM PDT

What is the difference between Millennial Oscillations and Dansgaard-Oeschger Oscillations?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 06:30 PM PDT

I'm learning about millennial oscillations in my climate change class, but i don't quite understand the relationship between them are Dansgaard-Oeschger. Is Dansgaard-Oeschger a type of millennial oscillation? Adding on to this, are Heinrich events a more specific type of Dansgaard-Oeschger oscillation? I'm super confused, would appreciate if anyone would be able to help me out

submitted by /u/CoronaryArtery
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If a white light is shined though red colored plastic and projected onto another surface, the projection is red. Shouldn't it be all colours of white minus red? Isn't red scattered by the red plastic, letting only the other colours through?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 12:34 PM PDT

Can I jump from the ISS in such a way I fall to the earth?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 09:15 AM PDT

Basically that's it. Can I jump from the ISS in a specific direction with a specific force to throw myself out of orbit and fall to the Earth? I guess one would burn themself in the entrance by doing it but I'm just curious.

submitted by /u/amatiasq
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Can a molecule be big enough to be seen by the human eye?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 12:24 PM PDT

Can a molecule become big enough to be seen by our eyes without microscope, and if so what would be it's formula.

Preferably not a big DNA string, because these are just made up of 4 the same molecules with bondings.

submitted by /u/YoranJansen
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Wednesday, October 9, 2019

In this NASA image, why does the Earth appear behind the astronaut, as well as reflected in the visor in front of her?

In this NASA image, why does the Earth appear behind the astronaut, as well as reflected in the visor in front of her?


In this NASA image, why does the Earth appear behind the astronaut, as well as reflected in the visor in front of her?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 10:29 PM PDT

The image in question

This was taken a few days ago while they were replacing the ISS' Solar Array Batteries.

A prominent Flat Earther shared the picture, citing the fact that the Earth appears to be both in front and behind the astronaut as proof that this is all some big NASA hoax and conspiracy to hide the true shape of the Earth.

Of course that's a load of rubbish, but I'm still curious as to why the reflection appears this way!

submitted by /u/KiIroywasHere
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AskScience AMA Series: We are researchers studying breast cancer at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). In honor of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month, ask us anything!

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 04:00 AM PDT

During National Breast Cancer Awareness Month each October, current and former patients, advocates, and scientists work together to educate the public about a disease that touches the lives of millions of Americans every year. In 2019 alone, researchers expect more than 300,000 American women to be diagnosed with breast cancer, along with more than 2,600 men. Roughly one out of every eight American women will develop invasive breast cancer at some point in her lifetime, making it the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in American women.

In recognition of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month, the NIH Intramural Research Program (IRP) and National Cancer Institute (NCI) have partnered to bring you an "Ask Me Anything" with two prominent researchers in the NCI's Women's Malignancies Branch: Stanley Lipkowitz, M.D., Ph.D., and Alexandra Zimmer, M.D. Dr. Lipkowitz studies cellular and molecular pathways that regulate the growth and destruction of breast and ovarian cancer cells, while Dr. Zimmer, the Branch's Clinical Director, develops translational clinical trials to study treatments for breast cancer that has spread to other parts of the body, particularly the brain. She also investigates ways of preventing breast cancer from leaving the breast in the first place, a process known as metastasis.

Dr. Zimmer and Dr. Lipkowitz will be online from 1:00 pm to 3:00 pm ET (17-19 UT) to answer your questions. Ask them anything!

For more information on the NCI's Women's Malignancies Branch, please visit https://ccr.cancer.gov/womens-malignancies-branch.

To learn more about cancer research across the entire NIH IRP, go to https://irp.nih.gov/our-research/scientific-focus-areas/cancer-biology.

As a reminder, we cannot answer questions about your medical treatment publicly. Please talk about these questions with your treating physician.

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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How do random number generators work? Are they really random?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 04:44 AM PDT

How do we know that far away galaxies aren't made from antimatter?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 07:23 AM PDT

Scientists say that at the time of the big bang, in theory, equal amount of matter and antimatter should've been created, but now we have the universe of only matter. But how do we know that exactly? If antimatter has the same properties and behaviors similarly, how do we know that some Galaxy far away isn't made out of antimatter?

submitted by /u/Remmoze
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What mammal do we share the least dna similarities with?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 06:10 PM PDT

Why can't you measure the earth's potential with a multimeter?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 10:52 PM PDT

Hi.

I've read in some places that the Earth's atmosphere has an electric potential of about 100V/m at sea level. That confuses me for many reasons.

Wouldn't anyone standing up be immediately electrocuted? Maybe the air just has a really big output impedance?

Why can't you measure that potential with a multimeter? Output impedance shoudn't matter here.

submitted by /u/quietandproud
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How do Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators know how much of a shock to give?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 12:49 AM PDT

I watched a video where one of the makers of the device was saying that it can deliver a shock of 30-40 J although most people need about 10 J and I was just wondering how it knows whether or not someone will need a larger shock or not.

Thank you for any help.

submitted by /u/Not_Lisa
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 08:08 AM PDT

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.

The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.

Ask away!

submitted by /u/AutoModerator
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Why do carbon dioxide levels cause climate change when it was all originally drawn from the environment in the first place?

Posted: 09 Oct 2019 01:27 AM PDT

If a really big but extremely slow meteor was heading to earth, would it speed up because of the gravity of the earth?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 08:01 PM PDT

Can we create ball lightning artificially?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 10:52 PM PDT

How much radiation is still on Marie Curies notebooks?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 03:56 PM PDT

I just read that Marie Curies notebooks will still be radioactive for another thousand years at least because of the masses of radium and polonium that she and her husband handled. The books are kept in a box lined with lead in Paris - but what I could not find was the level of radiation in a unit like Sievert or Becquerel.

Does anybody on here know this by chance?

submitted by /u/ObjektKarotte37
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Is soap, water, and grease considered a physical reaction?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 08:25 PM PDT

I was washing my hands and remembered learning how the combination of water and soap allows the dissolving of grease or oil. I just don't remember what kind of reaction this is or if it's something other than a reaction. Does anyone know how this combination does it's magic?

submitted by /u/Tubbyball
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What happens at the middle of the earth's core?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 09:29 PM PDT

So I've always wanted to know... If temperature and all of that were out of the way, and we built a tube that goes straight through the middle of the planets core, would a person in the middle of the tube, at the core, float suspended in mid-air or would something else happen?

submitted by /u/Ultimaut
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Is there an el nino in the Atlantic too?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 09:08 PM PDT

Hello, we've all heard of El Nino and La Nina, but I was just wondering if there is a similar cycle/oscillation as ENSO in the Atlantic Ocean? If not, why is that? Thanks

submitted by /u/EmpireOfBarbettia
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What is the most powerful explosion in the universe: long gamma ray bursts or black hole mergers?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 10:02 PM PDT

What is the most powerful explosion a long gamma ray burst or a black hole merger. Some sources say gamma ray burst some say black hole merger. I want to know which one is more powerful?

submitted by /u/elementalking4
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Why do wave pulses travel instead of spread?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 07:48 PM PDT

If we have a long, straight string and then create an initial disturbance that quickly ceases, the pulse travels along the string - that is, the area that was initially disturbed returns to equilibrium. How can this be if the constituent particles move in SHM, which should imply that everywhere the wave pulse has been continues to oscillate?

Follow up: how can individual pieces of the string do SHM when the transverse component of tension is 0 at the piece's maximum height, instead of the maximum force predicted by SHM?

submitted by /u/Platyturtle
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How does the rate of respiration in warm blooded animals differ to those of cold blooded animals?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 12:02 PM PDT

How do children learn conceptual words?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 06:42 PM PDT

Are there lots of planets that have the exact same relative size sun and moon or is it just a massive coincidence that Earth has this?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 12:42 PM PDT

It just seems highly improbable that we have almost perfect eclipses

submitted by /u/StarLordOfTheDance
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What isotope of carbon do burning fossil fuels put into the lower atmosphere?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 06:33 PM PDT

From Wikipedia:

"Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both 13C and 14C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide."

If it's depleted of 13 and 14 then what isotope of carbon are fossil fuels putting into our air?

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suess_effect

Thanks!

submitted by /u/StickyRibbs
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If light can't escape the gravity of a black hole, doesn't that mean we could theoretically go faster than the speed of light if we sling-shotted a shuttle around one?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 09:53 PM PDT

Tuesday, October 8, 2019

AskScience AMA Series: Happy World Octopus Day! I'm a marine biologist who raised a day octopus in my home for a PBS Nature documentary called "Octopus: Making Contact." Ask me anything!

AskScience AMA Series: Happy World Octopus Day! I'm a marine biologist who raised a day octopus in my home for a PBS Nature documentary called "Octopus: Making Contact." Ask me anything!


AskScience AMA Series: Happy World Octopus Day! I'm a marine biologist who raised a day octopus in my home for a PBS Nature documentary called "Octopus: Making Contact." Ask me anything!

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 04:00 AM PDT

Hi, I'm David Scheel, a professor of marine biology at Alaska Pacific University. I've studied octopuses for more than 20 years and recently raised a day octopus in my living room for a documentary. The octopus was named Heidi, and she came to recognize me and my daughter and would play with toys and display other remarkable signs of intelligence.

I also caught her changing colors while sleeping, you may have seen this clip.

If you haven't yet watched "Octopus: Making Contact," you can stream it at https://to.pbs.org/2Oj3ApV (US viewers only)

It also aired on the BBC under the title "The Octopus in My House."

I'll see you all at 12 noon ET (16 UT), ask me anything!

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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How do X-rays penetrate materials?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 05:59 AM PDT

Hello, My understanding is that the lower the frequency, the longer the range. Ergo, radio waves can travel long and far despite obstacles in their way and high frequency visible light can't navigate obstacles.

Given that X-rays have higher frequency than visible light, how is it that they can travel through metal objects as well? Do X-rays not scatter according to Rayleigh's law?

submitted by /u/zohairs
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Would blowing a meteor up as it enters atmosphere lessen the damage to Earth?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 12:58 AM PDT

Or just turn it from a cannonball into grapeshot?

submitted by /u/Jerswar
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Is there a possibility antiphotons exist?

Posted: 08 Oct 2019 05:03 AM PDT

Where are we in the current Milankovitch cycle? And when would the next ice age be (if there was no human cause climate change)?

Posted: 07 Oct 2019 10:02 PM PDT

When I was young I was told that when rinsing with mouthwash containing alcohol (listerene for example) That the burning meant it was working. Is that true? If not, why does it stop burning after the first few seconds?

Posted: 07 Oct 2019 03:58 PM PDT

How much acceleration is required for uniform circular motion with relativistic velocity?

Posted: 07 Oct 2019 08:34 PM PDT

For example, you have a ship travelling in a circular "orbit" with unit radius around empty space, with constant inward acceleration (of 1g, 10g... arbitrarily high).

How does the acceleration required increase as the velocity increases up towards the speed of light?

submitted by /u/Quicksilver_Johny
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Does Nutation or Precession Affect the Rheology and/or Magnetic Field of Our Planet?

Posted: 07 Oct 2019 08:40 PM PDT

Okay, this is my first post here so I should say that I am not an academic, I'm just a rather erudite and curious scientific civilian

This is something that has been poking at me for a while and I haven't been able to find any clear answers in the papers I've read.

Do the various nutations in the Earth's axis affect the rheologic flow in the mantle and thereby affect the magnetic field over time? Also could there be a 'tipping point' where the movement/flow of the mantle is misaligned with the rotational axis of the earth, causing the spin axis to shift?

Is was just doing some abstract thinking on the subject playing with spinning water in a glass and had to stop and look up the words that describe the concepts I'm asking about. I have been trying to construct a model in my mind but I'll admit that I don't have a hold on even most of the pieces in play. I usually learn best through discourse so any direction or discussion would be awesome. Thanks

submitted by /u/atridir
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Is there a uniform measure of time that is not dependent on Earth?

Posted: 07 Oct 2019 06:36 AM PDT

I was watching The Expanse and a comment was made by some people who were from the Asteroid Belt, when talking about their age: "Even our Time comes from [Earth]?" It got me thinking, I know time is relative, but still, is there a uniform measure of time that is not dependent on Earth? One that can be measured and leveraged ubiquitously anywhere in space?

submitted by /u/TooLongAlreadyRead
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Planets clear their orbits of debris (or they're not called planets). So why don't SMBHs clear their galaxies of dark matter?

Posted: 07 Oct 2019 12:09 PM PDT

Whatever DM is, it interacts with gravity so there should at all times be a steady stream of DM falling past the SMBH's event horizon and on to the singularity, never to emerge except via Hawking radiation in the far future.

Many galaxies are disc-shaped but their DM tends to exist in a (more) spherical globule surrounding the galactic center (GC), according to artist's impressions of DM distribution, which are of course based on whatever the physics is that's being illustrated. I have to assume those images are accurate depictions.

So if those images are showing globules of DM surrounding GCs, why are those globs of DM still there? Why doesn't the SMBH "vacuum" it all up within a few million years, or whatever relatively short time scale?

Tell me if this is wrong: DM exists in elliptical orbits around GCs. But those orbital paths would be distorted by other stars near the SMBH, causing some of the DM to be accelerated into the SMBC on a steady basis until there was none left outside the EH.

But it seems that doesn't happen. What's really going on? It seems that the still unknown exact nature of DM wouldn't affect the problem as I've stated it.

submitted by /u/Commentariat1
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