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Wednesday, May 29, 2019

AskScience AMA Series: I am Jamil Zaki, professor of psychology at Stanford University and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness, which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days. AMA!

AskScience AMA Series: I am Jamil Zaki, professor of psychology at Stanford University and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness, which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days. AMA!


AskScience AMA Series: I am Jamil Zaki, professor of psychology at Stanford University and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness, which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days. AMA!

Posted: 29 May 2019 04:00 AM PDT

I am Jamil Zaki, a professor of psychology at Stanford University and the director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness (it comes out next week on June 4), which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days.

Empathy is in short supply. Isolation and tribalism are rampant. We struggle to understand people who aren't like us, but find it easy to hate them. Studies show that we are less caring than we were even thirty years ago. In 2006, Barack Obama said that the United States is suffering from an "empathy deficit". Since then, things only seem to have gotten worse.

It doesn't have to be this way. In my book, I share my research, including experiments from my own lab, showing that empathy is not a fixed trait - something we're born with or not - but rather a skill that can be strengthened through effort. There are stories of people who embody this new perspective, fighting for kindness in the most difficult of circumstances. We meet a former neo-Nazi who is now helping extract people from hate groups, ex-prisoners discussing novels with the judge who sentenced them, Washington police officers changing their culture to decrease violence among their ranks, and NICU nurses fine-tuning their empathy so that they don't succumb to burnout.

For more information, you can visit: [warforkindness.com](warforkindness.com)

To pre-order a copy, visit: https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/550616/the-war-for-kindness-by-jamil-zaki/

You can see I'll be ready for your questions at 9AM Pacific/Noon Eastern (16 UT), AMA!

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Are there more protons, neutrons, or electrons in the universe? How do the three rank by abundance?

Posted: 28 May 2019 04:58 PM PDT

Ask Anything Wednesday - Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science

Posted: 29 May 2019 08:12 AM PDT

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Physics, Astronomy, Earth and Planetary Science

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.

The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.

Ask away!

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How does a simple circuit with a cell and a bulb actually work in detail?

Posted: 29 May 2019 02:39 AM PDT

I want to know the inner workings of a simple electric circuit. I have been getting confused lately regarding charge carriers and what not.

submitted by /u/simeon_jesus
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Why is mars's axial tilt similar to earth's?

Posted: 29 May 2019 02:39 AM PDT

As I understand it, the spin of mars is similar to earth's because it is derived from the initial spin of the accretion disc. But what factors influence the axial tilt of a planet? As I understand it, for a moonless ( large ones ) planets this varies wildly because nothing keeps it in place.

Why are earth's and mars's axial tilts so similar, and if by chance, what are the odds?

submitted by /u/autisticsavanas
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How do protons become converted into neutrons and vice versa?

Posted: 29 May 2019 07:40 AM PDT

I saw in another thread about the number of protons vs electrons vs neutrons in the universe and someone mentioned that neutrons and protons could be converted into each other through the weak force. How does this process take place?

The other thread this came from: https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/bu7j1j/are_there_more_protons_neutrons_or_electrons_in/

submitted by /u/ThatNerdyRedneck
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How do transformers deal with different input potential differences?

Posted: 29 May 2019 07:05 AM PDT

I think I have a decent understanding of how a transformer works, that by altering the number of loops on the primary and secondary coils you can step up or step down the output potential difference. One thing I'm not sure about is how the transformers in things such as laptop cables allow an input P.D. range from 110V to 240V and still output the 12V required by the laptop. Can anyone explain this to me please?

submitted by /u/Theuniversal82
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Is the ground getting "taller"?

Posted: 28 May 2019 07:08 PM PDT

I've been reading about archeology lately and find it interesting that they always have to dig to find things. Are objects on the ground constantly being covered in layer after layer of dirt? Is the ground getting "taller" so to speak? Where is this dirt coming from?

I understand, in some cases, humans built new cities on top of the ruins of old cities.

Bonus question: Would this slightly offset sea level rise or is it just dirt moving from mountains to valleys?

submitted by /u/Roguefalcon
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How do we measure someone's olfactory response?

Posted: 29 May 2019 06:10 AM PDT

I know there is variance in the ability to smell between different individuals, such as those with hyperosmia/hyposmia, but how is this determined?

Is there a specific scale or measurement that is used?

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If a person is radioactive can they make other people and things radioactive?

Posted: 29 May 2019 05:57 AM PDT

Why is it when you take a ball of plasticine, it sinks in water, but floats once you squash it enough? Is it because of surface tension or density or something else? This is a basic question, but I have been genuinely puzzled for a while.

Posted: 29 May 2019 05:52 AM PDT

Why do some chemicals react differently when added in a different way? Such as Chlorine, and Water.

Posted: 29 May 2019 05:42 AM PDT

Why do chemical such as Chlorine act differently when added to water, if water is added to it? Chlorine when added to water reacts differently, than if you were to put water onto chlorine, why is this?

submitted by /u/____Zaxh____
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How do genes influence the development of beaks in birds?

Posted: 29 May 2019 02:45 AM PDT

Is there a major underlying genetic mechanism underneath that shapes the beaks of all birds? I find it fascinating as beaks are so varied and I'm wondering how the genetic mechanism functions to create this diversity amongst bird beaks. If you don't have an answer, are there any resources worth looking at? Any other directions I can head in?

submitted by /u/remote_man
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Do strategic skills transfer between different games?

Posted: 28 May 2019 01:34 PM PDT

If I play a lot of chess will I be better at go, or if I play a lot of strategy video games will it help (to whatever extent) with board games like Risk etc. or since these games have different rules, would the skills for them be mostly independent from each other?

submitted by /u/Akaihi
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In Liquid packaging boards, how is the seperation of the single layers at the site of Aluminum prevented?

Posted: 29 May 2019 02:32 AM PDT

In this article there is a good picture showing the single layers of such a "liquid packaging board". Why do the layers not just simply separate where there is AL?

As I understand it, Al is vaporized onto a PE - layer, which ist hen merged with another PE layer. But in my experience introduction of an Al-Layer inbetween other layers will prevent any kind of adhesion of those outer layers to each other, meaning you could easily pull those apart.

I hope you understand what I'm trying to say...

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Is there a theoretical max diameter for hail?

Posted: 28 May 2019 09:58 PM PDT

With some of the footage that has been going around of the weather in the mid west, I see a lot of people sharing stories of baseball, from one thread I saw some even telling tall tales of basketball sized hail.

This has me wondering, is there a limit to how large an individual piece of hail can get before hitting the ground? If so, what determines that?

submitted by /u/pribnow
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How does 'activated charcoal' work in the body? Are there any ways of amplifying it's powers?

Posted: 29 May 2019 12:59 AM PDT

On the molecular level, what makes an oil classified that way?

Posted: 28 May 2019 06:47 PM PDT

I have an add-on question to that if anyone is willing to take a stab: If you had unusual elements that were to reach their liquid state, would that liquid state be classified as an oil?

submitted by /u/Grandpa_Willy
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Why does negative charge accumulate at the bottom of the cloud as opposed to the top part of the cloud?

Posted: 28 May 2019 11:13 PM PDT

EDIT: Also, in a lightning strike, it is said that positive charges travel from the ground up and negative charges travel from the cloud down. When they meet, this causes a lighting bolt. My additional question is: How can "positive charges" move? Aren't positive charges (protons) much less mobile than negative charges (electrons) ?

EDIT: Question #3: When a lightning strikes the ground, the negative charges moves from the bottom part of the cloud to the ground. What happens to the top part of the cloud, which is positively charged?

submitted by /u/3WayGen
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Why are rainy clouds grey and not white? Is the greyness a measure for the amount of rain it contains?

Posted: 28 May 2019 09:45 AM PDT

Can viral vectors used in gene therapy replicate, or do they just deliver their payloads and die?

Posted: 28 May 2019 01:59 PM PDT

I've read about experiments in curing genetic diseases using viral vectors. From what I understand, they take a virus, put RNA or DNA encoding correct genes, as opposed to faulty ones causing patient's disease, then infect people with that virus, and it injects patient's cells with correct genes. What I want to know is, since viruses use cells to make more viruses, are these viral vectors capable of making more of themselves, or they just deliver their payload and die? Meaning that during therapy, you only get as much viral particles as there is in the shot you're given, or however it's administered?

submitted by /u/MajesticS7777
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Tuesday, May 28, 2019

Do mirrors reflect only visible-spectrum EM waves or those of other wavelengths?

Do mirrors reflect only visible-spectrum EM waves or those of other wavelengths?


Do mirrors reflect only visible-spectrum EM waves or those of other wavelengths?

Posted: 28 May 2019 02:53 AM PDT

I recall the story in which people who were present shortly after the chernobyl disaster were able to view extremely irradiated areas (see: elephants foot) through mirrors and cameras. Do the mirrors reflect any/some of the ionizing radiation?

On the other end, do mirrors have any effect on infrared light or radio waves?

submitted by /u/Sushimono
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How are clothes washed aboard the ISS?

Posted: 27 May 2019 07:36 AM PDT

Why did physicians historically administer vaccines into patients buttocks as opposed to the Arms/thighs?

Posted: 28 May 2019 03:04 AM PDT

Why aren't all batteries rechargeable?

Posted: 28 May 2019 03:36 AM PDT

Im talking about the AAA batteries you buy in stores: 1. How come you can charge some batteries and can't charge others 2. If chargeable batteries can be made then why make and sell unchargable ones

submitted by /u/Foxxit_
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Which species first evolved eyebrows?

Posted: 28 May 2019 12:01 AM PDT

What gives hydrofoils roll stability?

Posted: 27 May 2019 05:35 PM PDT

What gives hydrofoil water craft roll stability?

I know that roll stability in airplanes comes from dihedral, but that also requires side slip to take effect.

Is it the same effect with hydrofoils or is there a different phenomenon that keeps them from rolling over?

submitted by /u/maxwellmotion
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Are rainstorms, or storms in general, at all influenced by the sunlight? In other words, do storms behave differently at night vs during the day?

Posted: 27 May 2019 07:13 AM PDT

Is the Milky Way generally rotationally aligned the same way our solar system is?

Posted: 27 May 2019 09:56 AM PDT

The sun and planets are generally revolving around the same plane spinning in the same direction due to conserving angular momentum when the bodies were being formed. Does the Milky Way have the same tendency where the stars and solar systems are all rotating the same direction?

submitted by /u/Steelsly
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If I drink beer all night, is my piss alcoholic or do I digest all the alcohol?

Posted: 27 May 2019 03:02 PM PDT

Can Bessel Functions describe Cylindrical Harmonics in more than 3 dimensions?

Posted: 27 May 2019 09:22 PM PDT

3D Cylindrical coordinates have length, radius, and angle. If you add a fourth dimension, is it another angle? Radius? Or length? Why?

I am specifically thinking of TE and TM modes in a cylindrical waveguide.

I was talking to my friend's dad, who worked at Lockheed. His specialty was optics. He worked on the space shuttle back in the day. He designed an instrument which was used to align the heat shield tiles with high precision.

I asked him about Bessel Functions. He said, "Oh yeah. If you have vibrations on a sphere, that's Spherical Harmonics. If it's vibrations in a cylinder, that's Bessel Functions. And vibrations on a flat rectangle, that's Hermite Polynomials".

Is this true?

I'm trying to model what it would look like if you have TE or TM modes in a cylindrical waveguide, but the waveguide (and waves) exists in 4 dimensions of space. I want to make an animation in Processing 3.

submitted by /u/wam235
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During Nuclear fusion experiments, how is the power produced dissipated safely?

Posted: 27 May 2019 08:14 AM PDT

I've seen smaller scale tests using heater bars to dissipate energy as heat, but how is this translated to such a high energy level?

submitted by /u/isthisastudentyplace
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Why can electrical wiring not be used to repair nerve damage, especially in the spinal cord?

Posted: 27 May 2019 02:10 PM PDT

Say, for instance, someone is shot through their spine, destroying the spinal nerves in a specific location. Is it not possible to implant a conducting material like copper in that region, to at least try and reestablish a connection, creating the possibility of relearning through physical therapy?

submitted by /u/rustin420blznayylmao
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Why aren't viruses considered alive?

Posted: 27 May 2019 07:25 AM PDT

I get that we have a list of criteria for something being alive (i.e. it has to grow, reproduce, evolve, respond to stimuli, etc.) and that viruses fail several of these criteria. Here is my issue though, isn't this list arbitrary? Like, why draw the line at a place that excludes viruses. They sure seem alive by many standards. They even have genetic material, reproduce, and evolve. It has been proposed before that our definitions of life could exclude life on other planets that evolved differently from Earth. Doesn't that mean we are just arbitrarily choosing to exclude some from Earth itself too? Is there a reason or a benefit to exclude viruses from the tree of life?

submitted by /u/Quincy0807
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How are heat (phonons) and sound different?

Posted: 27 May 2019 10:46 AM PDT

I know that heat is made up of phonons, or lattice vibrations, and sound is vibrations through a medium (on a much larger scale than phonons). What distinguishes them? If a sound existed that was so small/quiet-so as to be on the same energetic scale as a phonon-how would it be different from a phonon?

submitted by /u/zensark
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Is Internal Deformation in glaciers fastest at the surface or at the base?

Posted: 27 May 2019 07:57 AM PDT

Through some skimming google searches, I find directly contradictory statements that either say "friction from the ground causes slower internal deformation at the base," or "higher pressures drive faster internal deformation at the base".

I'm inclined to agree with the latter statement, since internal deformation is reliant on pressure, but the logic of the former makes sense, as glaciers flow faster in the center than the edges because of friction with the valley walls.

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Why do bladeless wind turbines have to be spaced out?

Posted: 27 May 2019 04:12 AM PDT

I saw this video about new wind turbines that dont have blades.

https://i.imgur.com/HkPc4IF.jpg

I'm just wondering why they are as far apart as they are? Is that the minimum distance to ensure effectiveness? Why is that the case?

And why not just put them as close together as possible?

submitted by /u/TearShitDown
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What happens underground as more and more oil is extracted?

Posted: 27 May 2019 06:02 AM PDT

My understanding is that to extract oil from normal underground oil fields, explorers need to pump water instead, to replace it.

What happens down there as we extract all those millions of barrels of oil around the world? Will the underground earth strata not get destabilized somehow?

submitted by /u/Redpillbrigade17
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Stuff like the asian economic crisis 1997, how does one problem spread throughout the whole Continent?

Posted: 27 May 2019 06:34 AM PDT

I was recently search for The economic crisis of Thailand 1997, with little knowledge of economic, how does one problem in Thailand cause a mass destruction of inflation in other ASEAN country like Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, etc?

submitted by /u/Faiswusuf
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Is there any evidence that melatonin supplementation leads to decreased production of it in humans?

Posted: 27 May 2019 03:53 AM PDT

As an example, those men who supplement testosterone are often advised that endogenous production of testosterone may decrease and lifelong supplementation may be necessary.

Since the body also makes melatonin, does artificial supplementation of it lead to decreased endogenous production in the short or long term?

(Not asking for specific medical advice, just curious.)

submitted by /u/calion009
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How does blood flow round your body in space?

Posted: 27 May 2019 08:59 AM PDT

Monday, May 27, 2019

Are modern humans stronger or more athletic than our pre-agricultural counterparts?

Are modern humans stronger or more athletic than our pre-agricultural counterparts?


Are modern humans stronger or more athletic than our pre-agricultural counterparts?

Posted: 26 May 2019 08:47 PM PDT

Why is a cooling tower in a Nuclear power plant, the shape that it is?

Posted: 26 May 2019 05:05 PM PDT

What exactly does it mean for the electromagnetic force to be carried by photons?

Posted: 27 May 2019 05:00 AM PDT

When magnets attract or repel each other, are they literally exchanging photons? Can they be detected, or blocked? What is actually causing the acceleration?

When an electron is attracted to a proton are they creating and absorbing photons, and what does this have to do with an electron absorbing a photon and moving up in energetic states?

What's the difference between positive and negative charge with respect to photons?

Finally, what does it even mean for a force to be carried by a particle?

I don't understand the mechanism behind this at all.

submitted by /u/Mr-C137
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How does Proteinase K avoid eating itself?

Posted: 27 May 2019 06:13 AM PDT

A protein that digests proteins, but does not get digested by itself.

submitted by /u/iorgfeflkd
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Why did RMBK reactor had graphite-tipped control rods?

Posted: 27 May 2019 02:19 AM PDT

As you might expect, I started watching the Chernobyl series, and got enough explanation as why the disaster happened.
But I can't find any information why the control rods in the reactor had graphite tips?

submitted by /u/Barcelus
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If somebody shot an atom-sized bullet at you, would it actually hit you or go right through? And if not, how big does a bullet have to be for it to hit you?

Posted: 26 May 2019 08:52 AM PDT

Palm trees are really topheavy. Why do they resist breaking so much better than deciduous trees like poplars?

Posted: 26 May 2019 05:51 PM PDT

Why do the outsides of cold drink get wet?

Posted: 26 May 2019 07:27 PM PDT

Do we have an idea\hypothesis on how did chromosomes appear?

Posted: 26 May 2019 11:05 AM PDT

My understanding is that prokaryotes have a single DNA ring\strand, while most eukaryotes have essentially multiple DNA molecules contained in a nucleus.

My question is basically "how did this happen". I tried googling "how did chromosomes evolve" and such, but couldn't find an answer.

If I had to guess, I'd say "the DNA probably got so big it broke in two, then it happened again multiple times", but that's just a guess. So I came here to ask those who know.

I imagine having a cell nucleus has something to do with it, but I'm not sure which came first: chromosomes or the nucleus? Did the nucleus evolve to store the broken pieces of DNA, or did nucleus evolve for something else (Guarding own DNA against mtDNA? Idunno), and then DNA had to break down into smaller pieces (just because it could now, or to be able to get out of the nucleus? I admit my grasp on the inner workings of a cell is sketchy, I'm a layman).

submitted by /u/Momoneko
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Are there any known K-Type stars in the Pleiades cluster?

Posted: 26 May 2019 02:03 PM PDT

I'm working on a project that takes place at an orange dwarf star in the Pleiades cluster. The thing is, I'm trying to stay as realistic as possible and want to use a star that is already known, rather than making one up. I've tried searching on Google, using Space Engine's star browser, and others but I didn't find any results. I've tried using the Gaia archive too but I didn't really understand how to use it.

So, has an orange dwarf been discovered in the Pleiades?

submitted by /u/abbey--r0ad
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What impact do chromosomal disorders have on transplant surgeries?

Posted: 26 May 2019 08:43 AM PDT

For example, how would an organ transplant work for a person with Down Syndrome? I tried doing research on this but could only find recent case studies so any other sources would be greatly appreciated. Thanks!

submitted by /u/alemonator
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What kind of effect does global warming have on volcanoes?

Posted: 26 May 2019 11:27 AM PDT

why is there no volcanism on the western side of the African-Eurasian plate boundary?

Posted: 26 May 2019 08:34 PM PDT

How can we guarantee the absence of collisions when hashing files that are larger than the output hash length?

Posted: 26 May 2019 02:01 PM PDT

For example, when hashing an 800 bit (100 byte) file with a hashing algorithm that produces hash values of 512 bits. There are 2800 possible variations of the input file, but only 2512 possible output hash values. How can the one-to-one property of hashing algorithms hold up when hashing each possible variation of the input 100 byte file, let alone files with GB or TB sizes?

submitted by /u/KGamesB
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I'm curious about Jupiter's magnetosphere. Does the Jupiter's magnetic field affect Earth?

Posted: 26 May 2019 05:41 PM PDT

Why do we see quark mixing between down, strange, and bottom, but not up, charm, and top?

Posted: 26 May 2019 05:19 PM PDT

Is it just convention that we describe the |q| = 1/3 quarks as mixing, and the |q| = 2/3 as static, or is there some reason that we see a difference between the two sets?

submitted by /u/Thug_Mustard
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Is there a theoretical limit to the magnification capabilities of telescopes?

Posted: 26 May 2019 07:21 AM PDT

Why are feces all the same relative looking color across different species of animals?

Posted: 26 May 2019 05:01 AM PDT

Regardless of feeding behavior it seems that excrements do share a common brown-ish color. I heard it has to do something with blood cells.

submitted by /u/Dedadas45
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