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Wednesday, December 6, 2017

The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?

The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?


The last time atmospheric CO2 levels were this high the world was 3-6C warmer. So how do scientists believe we can keep warming under 2C?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 04:50 PM PST

What's underneath the sand at the beach? How far does the sand go and what is beneath that?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 03:17 PM PST

Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology

Posted: 06 Dec 2017 07:06 AM PST

Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology

Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".

Asking Questions:

Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.

The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.

Answering Questions:

Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here. In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.

If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, please refer to the information provided here.

Past AskAnythingWednesday posts can be found here.

Ask away!

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How do different connectors/cables vary in data transmission speed?

Posted: 06 Dec 2017 04:44 AM PST

Between DisplayPort and VGA, why is DisplayPort faster than VGA? Is it the material, shape?

submitted by /u/bendycumberbitch
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Why do banana peels brown almost immediately after you remove them from the banana?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 09:09 AM PST

When it's still intact it takes days to brown

submitted by /u/lingualnosh
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Why wasn't Cassini damaged when it flew through the water plumes of Enceladus?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 03:10 PM PST

We're often told that items as small as a fleck of paint can pose a threat to objects in orbit around Earth because the relative speeds are so high, but Cassini was able to fly through the water plumes of Enceladus just fine. Why wasn't the craft damaged during this maneuovre? Was the water to fine a mist, so to speak? If so, how was Cassini able to reliably sample the plumes if they were so fine?

submitted by /u/meshuggahofwallst
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(Human Body) What mechanism prevents human parthenogenetic embryos from developing into viable fetuses?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 11:08 PM PST

TIL that scientists are able to create human embryos using just egg cells without sperm cells. (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/you-say-embryo-i-say-parthenote/) The article linked says only that "Because it contains no genetic material from a father, however, it cannot develop into a viable fetus." It does not say how the embryo (or pseudo-embryo?) is prevented from developing into a fetus. Given that other vertebrates are able to reproduce parthenogenetically, what is the mechanism that arrests the development of human parthenogenetic embryos?

submitted by /u/Cgk-teacher
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How can an increase of only 2 degrees in earth’s average temperature cause so much damage?

Posted: 06 Dec 2017 04:22 AM PST

So every time it is mentioned that we should try to keep the change in earth's average temperature under 2 degrees it is accompanied by several examples about how this change affects the earth (ice melting, deserts being formed etc..) but how does an increase of only 2 degrees cause so much damage?

submitted by /u/Once-a-lurker
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If I throw a ball from the ISS in the direction of the motion of ISS really fast, will it go tangential to the orbit of the earth or will it orbit the earth?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 11:04 PM PST

And what if I just gently drop the ball from the ISS? Will it follow ISS? I read that if I throw a ball aiming directly at earth , it will take a orbit around the earth, But why orbit?? Why dosen't the gravity just pull it towards Earth in straight path? Can someone explain this to me visually through an animation ?

EDIT: What If I'm floating still at the orbit of ISS and throw the ball towards Earth? Will it fall straight into Earth or will it orbit?

submitted by /u/hari2897
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What kinds of designs and methods can be used to prevent/minimize radiation damage to electronic devices that are used at nuclear disaster sites?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 02:59 PM PST

I know this sounds random, but I have been watching videos of the Fukushima disaster relief effort and when I came across the coverage of the remote controlled robots that kept failing I started trying to think of ways that would help this really big issue. Since the problem is on a huge scale and will possibly last 100 years I was wondering if it would be worthwhile to use wire controlled bots to slowly build a tunnel much closer to the source by using lead panels and a jackhammer mounted bot for the debris removal. This would help with the proximity issue and give the scientists/engineers a long lasting structure to help them over the years (or decades) of the project.

submitted by /u/Arduino87
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Has Earth ever had a more impressive mountain range than the Himalayas?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 07:30 PM PST

As part of any of the other configurations of Earth's continents, was there ever another mountain range as steep, tall, or that had as big an influence on weather and biology as the Himalayas do? It seems like the Himalayas are like a wall. Nothing can pass over them except some birds. Is there anything like that in deep history?

submitted by /u/floppydo
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Is there a connection between working mothers and young adult mental health?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 12:58 PM PST

There has been a large increase in the number of working mothers since the 1990's (in the UK) and, in a slightly later time period, an increase in the number of teenagers and young adults suffering from anxiety / depression (only some of which is from decrease in stigma and increase in diagnosis). Is there any evidence of a connection?

submitted by /u/katig
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How can we measure the speed with which the Milly Way rotates if we are part of it? What’s our reference frame?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 10:07 PM PST

Does the harmonic series have a finite-value representation - and if not, why not?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 07:35 PM PST

Certain divergent series, especially those that are described by the zeta function, have finite-value representations. The sum of the natural numbers is associated with -1/12, the infinite sum 1 + 1 + 1... is associated with -1/2, and Grandi's series is associated with 1/2. These values have applications in quantum mechanics.

Whilst the formulas for finding these sums are way above my head, I read here that this method of deriving finite values gives the same result as finding the y-intercept of the asymtotics of the smoothed version of the sum.

Applying this to the harmonic series gave this graph, which seems to approach ln(cx) and has no y-intercept, implying that the harmonic series has no finite value associated with it. On the other hand, it could be said that there is a constant term, ln(c), which would thus be the associated value (I have no proof that it does even approach ln(cx) but it looks like it does - perhaps I am completely wrong).

Does the harmonic series have a finite value associated with it, and if not (or if there are other examples that do not), why would some divergent series have finite representations but not others?

submitted by /u/aaronhyperum
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CMBR dipole versus Special Relativity?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 09:44 PM PST

The CMBR dipole indicates a direction that the milky way galaxy is moving (which happens to be a path into the Great Attractor). The intensity of the blueshift indicates a motion of 600 km/sec.

But what is the Milky Way moving 600 km/sec in relation to? If the answer is that it is the absolute velocity of the Milky Way through space itself , then certain conceptual tenets of Special Relativity would be violated. In particular, there would be an experiment that you could perform to establish a preferred stationary reference frame --- the existence of which is explicitly forbidden by SR.

What is the straightforward 'academic' explanation for why the CMBR dipole cannot be utilized to "break" SR in this way?

Hoping for friendlier answers and less hostility. Thanks.

submitted by /u/moschles
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From a quantum physics standpoint, how exactly do LEDs produce photons, and how efficient are they?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 09:11 PM PST

Why do frisbee fly so well? What is the physical science behind?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 04:12 PM PST

Why does your face get puffy after crying?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 06:00 PM PST

18 weeks pregnant lady here. I just got done with a hormonal pregnancy meltdown that included lots uncontrollable sobbing. Now my face is all red and puffy and I'm just wondering why and how this happens when we cry.

submitted by /u/bird_in_a_bush
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How different was the climate when Pangaea existed?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 08:37 PM PST

A submission on another subreddit showed Pangaea with current country borders and it looked like everything was kinda clumped around Antarctica. If Antarctica hasn't moved, then Pangaea was pretty cold? But Antarctica probably moved just as much as the other continents?

submitted by /u/prickly_pw
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Do different types of touch receptors(Merkel cells, ruffini corpuscles) send different types of signals to neurons?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 07:37 PM PST

If not, how does the brain differentiate between these kinds of signals?

submitted by /u/rwahl
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Is there a maximum and/or minimum possible wavelength for light to have?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 04:22 PM PST

Why can I start/stop torrents and still have them complete, but can't do it with other downloads off the internet?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 07:02 PM PST

Tuesday, December 5, 2017

When a person gets a cut, is it better to wipe off the blood or let the blood coagulate to protect the cut?

When a person gets a cut, is it better to wipe off the blood or let the blood coagulate to protect the cut?


When a person gets a cut, is it better to wipe off the blood or let the blood coagulate to protect the cut?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 06:12 PM PST

EDIT: 1.7K upvotes in 5 hours?! You guys have made my high school. Also thank you for all of your amazing responses, I didn't expect this level of depth!

EDIT 2: Just woke up and saw this post front paged with 10k upvotes in 10 hours!! You guys have made my childhood. Great discussion!

submitted by /u/coosdude
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If swelling is part of the healing process, why do we generally try to stop/reduce it?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 04:25 PM PST

[Mathematics] How can I store multiple integers as a single value?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 08:46 AM PST

So I'm a programmer and I had a thought.

There are functions I can use to store a value between program states, but I can't store a list of values.

If I have 2, 8 and 15 and I want to carry them between states, I'd have to store 3 values, but is there a way to use a calculation that I could reverse that would produce a single number, so I could get the values back after?

I could store 2, 5 and 7 as 257 and have the program decipher it to return 2, 5 and 7 but that only works for single digit integers, and long lists would produce a number too large.

The use of primes comes to mind but im unsure how, or if it's possible. Ideas?

submitted by /u/ProfessorTenebrae
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How can migranes hurt if you have no pain receptors in your Brain?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 04:41 AM PST

I have heard from several sources, including my Biology Teacher, that the brain lacks pain receptors, even going so far that you could perform brain surgery on a patient without anesthetics.

I have also read on Wikipedia, that often, migrane is caused by an arthery in your brain expanding to a certain degree (which seems reasonable, as migrane often feels like pulsating pressure in the brain to me). But how can you feel that pulsating pain, if the brain itself is inept of feeling direct pain? (Please note that I have very little knowledge of medicine, but am but a humble fool who often has migranes.)

submitted by /u/Godphila
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Why do we have 2 of some organs but only 1 of others?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 03:15 PM PST

Are there any genes found in dogs that aren't found in wolves?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 07:15 PM PST

I am curious as to whether there are genes in dogs that aren't found in wolves. I know E. coli developed a new citrate-metabolizing gene after about 33,000 generations, and there have probably been about half that many doggy generations since they were domesticated ~14,000 years ago (my numbers may be off). I also know that short-legged breeds have a gene analogous to achondroplasia, but I don't know if that's found in wolves or if it's from a mutation or what. So, are there any genes found in genetic screening of dogs that aren't found in wolf genomes?

submitted by /u/iorgfeflkd
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How do sprays like Febreze actually work?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 04:33 AM PST

Do the kinds of collisions created in supercolliders ever occur naturally?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 06:01 AM PST

How can a device such as a phone 'resist' being charged if it plugged in and connected to power?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 03:12 AM PST

In regards to an incompatible cable or a power source with not enough volts - if is connected to power, how can a device 'decide' not to charge? Is the electricity grounded somehow?

submitted by /u/Philosofred
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How are molecular sieves manufactured?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 12:07 AM PST

You know, those little balls you toss in whatever you want to dry 'cause they have ~3 Angstrom holes to absorb small molecules like water.

How the hell do you make them at an industrial scale?

submitted by /u/Garuda1Talisman
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Does a USB-C - USB-C charger extension cord slow down the charge?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 07:20 AM PST

DEVICE -> EXTENSION -> charger -> wall hub -> wall outlet.

Will this make it a slower charge than the normal

DEVICE -> charger -> wall hub -> wall outlet?

If so, why? Does the length cause it to draw slower or less power?

For the sake of purpose, I'm referring to USB-C TO USB-C only as I read USB-A it does effect the charge.

submitted by /u/Revaknight
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How do particle accelerators sync with the particles?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 03:11 AM PST

When a particle accelerator like CERN is accelerating a particle how do they time the RF Cavities with the particle?

Should I change this to the engineering category?

submitted by /u/Inverted_Cube
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If I setup a funnel to catch the wind, would it speed up the wind's speed? If so, to what degree and what is the maximum of this?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 06:49 AM PST

I saw an intensely green meteor shoot across the sky. Why was it green, and how common are they?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 06:49 AM PST

Additionally it had a very flat trajectory and flew slightly slower and farther than most other meteors I've seen. Color reminiscent of bioluminescent plankton, or the green hues of an aurora.

First time I've ever seen one, it was very beautiful.

Thank you!

submitted by /u/pokehercuntass
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How do Lithium Air batteries work?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 06:41 AM PST

What is the science behind emotions? Is there a scientific explanation for them?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 08:13 AM PST

Seeing that we only feel them and can't physically touch them, I'm wondering if there can be a science behind it all.

submitted by /u/livelife358
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the Lagrangeformalism is based on the principle of extremal action,are there any areas in Physics where you use it to find the maximum action instead of the lowest?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 06:02 AM PST

Why does the SpaceX Dragon V2's Trunk have winglets on it?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 05:54 AM PST

I noticed that there are small solar panels on the winglet, but in space, where there aren't too aerodynamic forces on the vehicle, why does the Dragon V2 have small winglets/stabilizers? Is it for stabilization because the vehicle doesn't have fairings on liftoff?

submitted by /u/0x4f0x770x610x690x73
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Does electron/positron annihilation leave the first atom charged?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 02:07 AM PST

For example, an atom (A) undergoes beta plus decay, the emitted positron annhilates with an electron from atom (B). If atom B had a charge of 0 before, would it now be +1?

submitted by /u/tyanater
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Keep hearing that we are running out of lithium, so how close are we to combining protons and electrons to form elements from the periodic table?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 06:40 AM PST

Why is pyrite not an economically viable metal ore, but other sulfides are?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 03:01 PM PST

I understand the basics of why pyrite isn't used as ore - it's difficult (and therefore expensive) to extract, and even when done correctly the result is still poor quality iron contaminated with sulfur. But why is this the case with pyrite, but not so with other sulfide ores like chalcopyrite and galena? Do they also have the same problem, it's just that we rely on iron for its mechanical strength far more than metals like copper, and therefore it's "acceptable" for a bit of sulfur contamination?

What's the specific nature of the bond between iron and sulfide that makes the sulfur so "sticky" compared to the more economical iron ores, hematite and magnetite, which are oxides?

submitted by /u/Owncksd
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What happens if an Astronaut gets hit by flying debris on a spacewalk?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 07:32 PM PST

Can Tritium beta expose photographic film?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 01:28 PM PST

Is the tritium beta particle capable of "exposing" photographic film? I know that many radioactive materials, placed in contact with photographic film can, over time, generate an "image" which can be developed, but is the beta particle from tritium capable of doing this or is it too low energy? How much energy is needed to expose photographic film?

submitted by /u/hagiograph
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What's the difference between dipole and coaxial?

Posted: 05 Dec 2017 04:20 AM PST

Monday, December 4, 2017

AskScience AMA Series: We are working to build precise atomic clocks that could fit inside your smartphone. Ask Us Anything!

AskScience AMA Series: We are working to build precise atomic clocks that could fit inside your smartphone. Ask Us Anything!


AskScience AMA Series: We are working to build precise atomic clocks that could fit inside your smartphone. Ask Us Anything!

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 05:00 AM PST

Atomic clocks are among the most precise scientific instruments ever made, and play an important role in advanced navigation, secure communication, and radar technology. Kyriakos Porfyrakis and Edward Laird of the University of Oxford are working on building a hyperprecise atomic clock that could fit on a chip inside a smartphone.

They begin with a nitrogen atom, which resonates at a particular frequency and acts as a very precise reference point by which to track time. Since nitrogen is highly reactive, they have to trap the nitrogen atom inside of an endohedral fullerene-a sort of atomic cage made out of 60 carbon atoms-in their lab. To do it, they used a process called ion implantation. This process produces a molecule called N@C_60 that can easily be collected and stored (they even sell it for £200 million per gram).

But before they could put the molecule in a clock, they also had to figure out how to cancel out magnetic fields from the surrounding environment that could disrupt the energy level of the nitrogen atom within. Earlier this year, they developed a way to shield the nitrogen atom from external magnetic fields by applying a steady magnetic field that would cancel out any effects.

They recently wrote about their work for IEEE Spectrum (https://spectrum.ieee.org/semiconductors/materials/to-build-the-worlds-smallest-atomic-clock-trap-a-nitrogen-atom-in-a-carbon-cage).

They'll be here starting 12 PM ET (17 UT). You can ask them about GPS, atomic clocks, nanomaterials, or anything else!

submitted by /u/AskScienceModerator
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Which is stronger: the windows on planes, or the lowest windows on a cruise ship?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 12:23 AM PST

Sometimes windows on cruise ships are low enough that they can have waves crashing into them (or even be underwater? maybe?). I would think it's a matter of pressure but I don't know that much about physics. I would also think the cruise ship ones have to be stronger because a tiny leak of water sounds worse than a tiny leak of air. Either way just something I was wondering.

submitted by /u/turcois
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[Chemistry] What exactly happens in the brain when someone "Blacks out" from alcohol?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 07:22 PM PST

I am guessing that some kind of block happens so nothing can reach long term memory, but I am not sure why a lot of alcohol causes this. I am wondering what happens on a chemical level as to why when someone consumes a lot of alcohol they "Black out" and cannot remember anything the next day.

submitted by /u/Spaghettijack
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Why are (some/most) humans instinctively afraid of the dark and feel safe in the light, when through a survival viewpoint it should be the other way around?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 06:50 PM PST

This is kinda psychology/biology maybe? Sorry if it's tagged wrong.

If darkness enables an animal to hide from others, wouldn't we feel better in the dark rather than in the light because we're more exposed in the light?

Does it have something to do with the fact we aren't accustomed to seeing in the dark and some other creatures are?

submitted by /u/Jay_Jay591
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If I forget something in my short-term memory, will it ever come back to me in my long-term memory or is it gone forever?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 06:43 PM PST

For example, if I meet a guy who tells me he lives in x city, but a few days later I can't remember what city he lives in, will that information ever come back to me without me actively trying to recall it?

submitted by /u/kapocean
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What causes "butterflies", as in the feeling in your stomach when you're nervous?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 10:27 AM PST

If temperature depends on the speed of moving molecules, is the absolute hottest temperature when molecules move at the speed of light?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 03:20 PM PST

Is there a language that dogs understand better then any other?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 12:00 PM PST

Can someone please explain how electricity works?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 08:28 PM PST

This has always been in my mind but I just never seemed to ask anyone or google the answer. I've always wondered how a flashlight turns on just from a switch or how a tv lights up when you press a button. I know it has to do with something dealing with electrons getting excited or something like that but I never understood the big picture.

submitted by /u/Roynoceros
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How are jet engines able to pump compressed air and fuel into an extremely high pressure compression chamber without back flow?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 12:03 AM PST

I know the presence of turbines but since they take energy from the very exhaust from the combustion chamber, they shouldn't be able to compress air to a higher internal energy/pressure than their very own energy source - the combustion chamber. I believe the same question could be asked of liquid fuel rockets' plumbing.

EDIT: By compression chamber I meant Combustion chamber

submitted by /u/WhyUFuckinLyin
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Is there any difference between "light guide" used in LED backlight and a piece of acrylic with a surface that is roughed up?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 02:12 AM PST

What makes spinal cord tissue different than other tissue than can repair itself when damaged?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 10:16 PM PST

In String theory, do existing Standard Model elementary particles map 1-to-1 with strings (with only their shape and mode of vibration differing), or does String theory propose some existing elementary particles to be composed of more than one string?

Posted: 04 Dec 2017 01:19 AM PST

If glass reflects UV light, then why are we unable to safely look at the sun through glass?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 07:19 PM PST

Why do Atoms in the Stern-Gerlach experiment always scatter into two bands?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 10:43 PM PST

My understanding of the experiment is that each band is created by one of the possible values for an atoms magnetic dipole moment. I also thought that magnetic dipole moment was based on both the spin and the angular momentum quantum numbers, meaning that there should be always an even number of bands (as opposed to the odd number of bands predicted prior to the knowledge of the existence of spin). Is there something about space quantization or spin that I'm not getting?

submitted by /u/JackofAllTrades30009
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Do microorganisms also require sleeping?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 07:11 AM PST

How round IS the sun?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 08:44 PM PST

More or less round than the earth? A billiard ball? The official kilogram in France? And how do we know?

submitted by /u/guest210751
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Can a star just fizzle out?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 08:21 PM PST

As I understand, a star will either go supernova or turn into a black hole. But is it possible for a star to just cool off? Turn into a lump of heavy elements all fused together? If so could a fusion reactor do the same thing ( fuse a bunch of atoms together and get a macro clump of fused hydrogen or something)?

submitted by /u/twelfthtestament
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How do organisms that live at low altitudes differ from organisms that live at high altitudes from an evolutionary standpoint?

Posted: 03 Dec 2017 10:32 AM PST